毕业设计（论文）
文献综述
题 目 不作为犯罪 姓 名 杨振京
学 号 405417030407 系 别 文法系 专 业 法学 指导教师 谢雯
200 年 月 日
Not as a crime Summary References
405417030407 Yang Zhenjing
In theory, not as a crime is not a foreign concept, but in practice it that there is still a lot of difficulties. Why is the act of omission, as the obligation not as a crime as a prerequisite for the existence, where its from, how are the need to continue to explore that subject, this, the Chinese and foreign scholars have conducted in-depth research, debate, in its judicial practice in the theory of reference.
Pei Fusheng in April 2006 in the Henan Vocational College of Judicial Police Journal published an article in "Product Recall the implementation of the legal thinking" is not no true principle of criminal law as a prerequisite for criminal contradiction as follows: the Criminal Code of conduct against the interests of strict law Canadian Law on the Protection of punishment and crime beneficial function of the principle embodied in the statutory protection of human rights conflicts between functions.
Professor of Chen Xingliang in 1992, Publishing House of China University of Political Science and the "philosophy of criminal law" put forward, for the principle of legality, we can not understand mechanical, criminal law is an act to provide the type of behavior as long as consistent with the characteristics of murder, on the all think that they are illegal in nature. Can be seen not as a homicide, but also the conduct of a type of murder, in its negative social values with the murder and not as a different place.
Ou Jinxiong in November 2007 Vol.22 No. 6 of the Guangxi Institute of Political Science and Law Management Journal published an article "not as a concept and scope of crime" will be discussed as a kind of crime is a scientific fact, not typical, as can be attributed to "the fact that "It is a static fact. Not seriously carry out the obligations for the good of not having a double as its own, it can also be attributed to acts of harm, and sexual behavior, and behavior is also a fact that a fixed fact.
Japanese scholar, Professor Inoue Secretary if written together in the 1973 version of the "controversy of the prohibition and punishment of the law" raised in the article: As for the obligation in accordance with the law, if it is thought by the general concepts, such as general well-organized illegal criteria to identify if such it may be based on pure conflict of laws and regulations of such a super standard to determine the establishment of crime in criminal law theory, as a result of the first acts as a well-organized, a habit of Health to look at the obligations and Therefore, the obligation to deny the occurrence of well-organized as a basis for denial of naturally acts as a first obligation under the sexual.
Xiong Xuanguo,People's Publishing House in 1992 version of "acts of criminal law theory" put forward, since it is not, as the first or incidental acts as obligations arising from, or omission from the legal obligations that exist as a violation of the occasion, whether it is in the general sense of logic or the meaning of the Penal Code are acts of omission.
Wuhan University Press edition in 1997,Li Hong , in the "not as a committed research" that can lead to some kind of law to protect the interests of at-risk of the first acts of the state, in fact, is a relationship between the criminal law could lead to legal acts, which arising from the elimination of risk is a legal obligation as the
obligation, the first based on the obligations arising from acts, is still not beyond the scope of the obligations of legal norms.
Professor of Zhang Mingkai, "Criminal Law" on the proposed implementation of the view that when the perpetrator of an act of a criminal law has been no danger, if automatically to prevent the occurrence of danger, it is grounds for penalty relief; if there is nothing to prevent actual harm the occurrence of the negative was guilty of criminal responsibility; if there is nothing to prevent more serious damage is the result of the occurrence of negative Consequential Aggravated criminal responsibility is not caused by the obligation to act as, or do not occur as a pure guilty the question of whether or not to set up.
第二篇：学生做作全英文文献综述
学生做作全英文文献综述
The mechanism of bacteria’s drug-resistance
(Chunyong Ding,Xiaorong Yu,Xiaojian Wang,Xiaoling Hu,
Chaonan Zheng, Xianfeng Miao, Yanyan Shi)
China Pharmaceutical University, 01401
ABSTRACT: Considering the increasing bacteria’s drug-resistance, In order to deal with this problem, we briefly discuss the general principle of the drug-resistance. We expound it in three parts:(1) Preventing the drug from getting into the cell. (2) Producing special enzymes.(3) Changing the target. In this article, we try to explain the essential structure and substance which are responsible for bacteria’s drug-resistance. When it’s necessary, we may go deeply into the level of atomic, bond and molecular configuration. In the end of the article, we also expound solutions to the drug resistance.
KEY WORDS: Bacteria’s drug-resistance; PBPs; The efflux pump; Beta-lactamase
Since the discovery of penicillin, the
antibiotics have served as effective arms
against bacteria. But now the situation is
changing: because of the abuse of the
antibiotics, more and more bacteria become drug-resistance and also they can develop their resistance to the drug in a very short time, as we can see from the picture below:
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And another big conscious: vancomycin ,a last defense against bacteria, which is called “last resort” is breaking apart! Vancomycin-resistant enterococci was first reported in England and France in 1987, and appeared in one New York City hospital in 1989. By 1991, 38 hospitals in the
There is no doubt that we are in a very serious situation, lots of work is needed to deal with such problems.
First we’d better learn how the drug-resistance rises?
Under the selective pressure, it’s a natural problem, not an accident, but a fact of evolution. We can draw the following equation:
ANTIBIOTICS+BACTERIA=DRUG-RESISTANCE
The antibiotics work as follows: Reach its target, bind it and interfere it. So the bacteria can become drug-resistance in the corresponding following three ways: First, the drug can’t reach its target. Second, the drug was destroyed or degraded. Third, the target was changed.
Now, we are going to discuss the three
United States had reported the bug. A frightening report came in 1992, when a British researcher observed a transfer of a vancomycin-resistant gene from enterococcus to Staph aureus in the laboratory. Just imagine that if the vancomycin resistance has spread widely, what should we do? mechanisms respectively:
First: the drug can’t reach its target.
The bacteria are divided into two classes---gram-positive and gram- negative by the Gram stain. The surface of gram-negative bacteria are more complex, and the inner membrane (which is analogous to the cytoplasmic membrane of gram-positive bacteria) is covered by the outer membrane. It functions as an impentrable barrier for some antibiotics.
① The outer membrane proteins (omps) penerate the outer membrane, with a narrow channel in the middle, which allows the small hydrosoluable moles to go through. Beta-lactam antibiotics can also diffuse into the cell through the channel because of their particular structures. So the omps play an important part in bacteria’s drug-resistance.
The change in their structures,
the
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decrease in their number the missing and mutation can prevent the drug from entering the cell. Recently lots of researches suggest ,there are lots of protein-F on the outer membrane of the S.aureous. The diameter of the channel is only 2.2 nm and the narrowed part of the channel is charged, because of the electricstaic effect and the narrow channel, many antibiotics can’t get into the cell.
Another extreme example is aerginosa, which is intrinsically resistant to a wide variety of antibiotics by lacking of the classical high-permeability porins.
② Bacteria also have efflux pumps that may transport drugs out of the cell. Resistance to tetracycline and to beta-lactam antibiotics is an example of an efflux pump mechanism. The following figure depicts multiple components that can mediate bacteria resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics.
Second, the drug was destroyed or
degraded.
Inactivation of the drug is the second general mechanism of drug-resistance. The typical example is, beta-lactam antibiotics, which have a common four numbered beta-lactam ring, can be degraded by the beta-latamase. Now, let’s look into its particular structure: As could be seen in the picture, the active center, which is called “binding cavity”, is organized by four parts, SXXK, KTG, SDN and Ω-circle, and the active center is SER located in “SXXK”, in the center of binding cavity. The “-OH” and “-NH” of SER and the “-NH” of Ala contribute together to the formation of “Michaelis”. KTG and SDN play an important part in the stability of the whole structure, while the Ω-circle is necessary in fixing the position of the water. What’s more, the binding cavity can strengthen its power by changing its own structure, it could become looser for big substrate.
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Third: the target was changed.
The bacteria’s cell walls give them the shape and protect them from osmotic lysis and toxic substance, so the tacit cell wall is crucial for the cell. Because bacteria’s cell wall distinguishes it from the host cell wall, unfortunately it also becomes the target of many antibiotics. Let’s review the biosynthesis of the cell wall: first the peptidoglycan subunit (containing one side-chain and attached peptide to be used in the cross-bridge formation) was synthesised in the cytoplasm, then was carried out by the carrier, then the sugar portion of the peptidoglycan subunit was linked to the glycan backbone. the final step involves the completion of the cross-link. This is accomplished by a transpeptidation reaction that occurs outside the membrane. The terminal glycan residue of the pentapeptide is linked to the fourth residue of the pentapeptide (D-lactam), releasing the fifth residue (also D-alanine). It is the last step in
peptidoglycan synthesis that is inhabited by the beta-lactam antibiotics and vancomycin.
For vancomycin, it binds to the D-alanine-D-alanine terminus of the cell wall thus sterically inhibit the cross-linking. Then lacking the dense and inter-connected network, the cell wall may become fragile and senstive to the enviroment, and finally burst out. But the bacteria (enterococcal) become vancomycin-resistance by the alteration of the D-alanyl-Dalanine to the D-alanyl-D-lactate or D-alanyl-serine, which bind vancomycin poorly, because a critical site for hydrogen bonding is missing. Than the bacteria can also add a amino acid (which is much larger than the alanine) to the end of the peptide chain, thus vancomycin can’t bind any more. Also the bacteria can change the composition of the cell wall by strengthing the thickness of the cell wall and reducing the cross-linking structure. So vancomycin has little influence on it.
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For beta-lactam antibiotics, lots of researches suggest that, They can binds with the penicillin-binding proteins, which is membrane-bounded, and inhibit its activities. All bacteria have serveal such entities. For example, the high-molecular-weight PBPs of E.coli(PBP 1a and PBP 1b) include the transpeptidases responsible for the synthesis of the peptidoglycan, other PBPs in E.coli include those that are necessary for septum formation at division.
The bacteria may be intrinsically resistant because of structural differences in the PBPs that are the target of these drugs. Furthermore, some bacteria can become resistant by the development of high-molecular-weight PBPs that have decreased affinity for the antibiotics. So altered PBPs with decreased affinity for the antibiotics can lead to their drug-resistance.
Solutions:
1. Announce of prevention
The basic rule is to avoid using antibiotics unnecessarily. Although that's a decision for doctors, patients who implore physicians to treat viral diseases like the common cold with antibiotics are not doing themselves any favors, since antibiotics are worthless against viruses.
2. Take the full prescribe course
Many people quit taking the drugs after the symptoms of their infection have disappeared, but some partly-resistant microbes might remain. If you quit taking your meds at that point, you're allowing the partly-resistant organisms to survive and multiply.
3. Be specific
Use the most specific antibiotic possible.--"narrow-spectrum," antibiotics will kill the offending bug without sparking resistance among other bacteria living in the patient, as broader-spectrum drugs might.
4.Be logical
Use the common antibiotics first. If they work, there will be no need to expose the bugs to more exotic drugs, which serve as a second line of defense.
5.Reduce hospital transmitted infections
Kill the bugs before they get inside patients. That can be done with ultraviolet lights, better sanitation, and putting patients with recalcitrant infections in isolation wards.
6.New drugs
Invent antibiotics that have new mechanisms for killing microbes.
7.Reduce widespread use
Consider reducing the widespread use of antibiotics in animal feeds.
References:
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