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Literature Review

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Introduction

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第二篇：英语系附件C文献综述—模板(英文)

重庆大学本科学生毕业设计（论文）附件 附件C：文献综述 附件C： Literature review

1. Review of cross-cultural theories

1.1 Hofstede’s five dimensions of culture

Just as Hofstede (2001) said “culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy; cultural differences are a nuisance at best and often a disaster” (p.23). For those who work in international business, it is sometimes amazing how different people in other cultures behave. We tend to have a human instinct that deep inside of all people are the same, but they are not in effect. Therefore, understanding cultural differences is often considered a prerequisite for successful international business.

According to Hofstede (2001), “each culture must deal with questions that can be resolved according to a series of dimensions, which results in a unique gestalt for each society, depending on the intensity of its tendency towards one or another end of each culture dimension spectrum” (p.34).

The Five Dimensions are

? Individualism

? Uncertainty avoidance index ? Power distance index ? Masculinity

Individualism ? Long-term orientation focuses on the degree the society reinforces individual or collective achievement and interpersonal relationships.

Uncertainty Avoidance focuses on the level of tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity within the society.

Power Distance focuses on the degree of equality, or inequality, between people in the country's society.

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重庆大学本科学生毕业设计（论文）附件 附件C：文献综述 Masculinity focuses on the degree the society reinforces, or does not reinforce, the traditional masculine work role model of male achievement, control, and power.

Long Term Orientation focuses on the degree the society embraces, or does not embrace long-term devotion to traditional forward thinking values.

These five dimensions, taken together, can give important insights for someone wishing to enter a new culture for business, study, or other purposes. Though he made a great contribution to cross-cultural business field, his research still has some limitation. Hofstede’s Five Dimensions Theory has been criticized on the grounds of being too static (Holden, 2001), or being weak in terms of theoretical foundation (Dahl, 2004).

1.2 Porter and Samovar's cross-cultural communication

According to Porter and Samovar (2006), communication has eight ingredients: source, encoding, message, channel, receiver, decoding, receiver response and feedback. Any communication takes places in a certain context and may be hindered by noises in the communication environment, causing communication misunderstanding or even failure. The idea could be illustrated by the following figure:

Figure 2.1 Communication process and steps

Encoding refers to the process of sender putting the message into codes. Decoding refers to the process of the receiver interpreting the message from the sender. Feedback means the reactions of receiver that are sent back to the sender after the receiver's interpretation of the message. Response means the reactions of receiver to the message

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重庆大学本科学生毕业设计（论文）附件 附件C：文献综述 upon receipt. Noise refers to the disturbances along the communication processes, which may result in unintended message being perceived by the receiver.

A complete process of communication can be broken into five steps: (Guffey, 2001)

(1) A Sender has an idea

(2) The sender encodes the idea in message

(3) The Message travels over channel

(4) A receiver decodes the message

(5) Feedback travels to the sender

Advertising in essence is also a process of communication. The sender here is the company who prepares and issues advertisements. The receiver is expected to be the target consumer group, although it is not always the case, as we will see in the advertising effectiveness analysis. The channel refers to all kinds of media or media mix ranging from flyer, direct mail, and newspaper to billboard, radio or TV etc. Messages about brands, products or services are carefully designed and encoded in advertisements by companies, usually with the professional help of an advertising agency. Favorable responses from the receiver, such as enhanced brand loyalty, purchase behavior are expected by the sender. In order to increase the effectiveness of their advertising, companies will try by any means to get feedback from the customers. However, not every advertisement conveys the right message, nor does every advertising message go to the right audience and most importantly, nor does every receiver respond favorably to the message. A complex of noises, such as bad timing, legal restrictions may hurt the effectiveness of advertising. Moreover, for multinational advertising, the most formidable noise naturally arises from the cultural differences. This is the focus of this thesis.

2. Review of international advertising strategy dilemma

In the international marketing literature, the issue of advertising standardization versus localization has ignited a lively and heated debate among academics and practitioners alike for nearly four decades who are still divided on the advisability of using standardized (universal) or localized (individualized) advertising approaches in international campaigns.

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重庆大学本科学生毕业设计（论文）附件 附件C：文献综述 On the one hand, advertisers who use the standardized approach argue that consumers anywhere in the world have the same basic needs and desires and can therefore be persuaded by universal appeals. On the other hand, advertisers who follow the localized approach assert that consumers differ from country to country and must accordingly be reached by advertising tailored to their respective countries.

Unfortunately, research on the relative effectiveness of different degrees of standardization and localization has shown that there are no golden rules that can safely guide marketing decisions. For the sake of further discussion of this issue, it is very necessary to have a review of the long-running debate of international advertising strategies.

2.1 Standardization

The standardization advertising approach, sometimes known as the "universal," "global," or "internationalized" approach, is defined as the practice of advertising the same product/service in the same way everywhere, that is, use of the same message, appeal, components of advertisements for different markets in different countries.

2.1.1 David L. Brown

It was in 1923 that David L. Brown put forward the idea of standardized advertising. David L. Brown, manager for advertising of Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, claimed that humanity possessed certain common attributes and so it was not only possible to standardize advertising across countries but also logical. He stated that just as green is green in Buenos Aires as well as in Batavia, just as two and two are four in Cape Town as well as Copenhagen, just as the main purpose of advertising is to sell goods, in Singapore as well as in Sydney or Santiago, so all the primary purposes of advertising are identical in all countries, and all fundamentals of good advertising are essentially the same north and south of the Equator and east and west of Greenwich (Brown, 1923).

2.1.2 Levitt

Among the proponents of standardization strategy, Levitt is the best known and the most

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重庆大学本科学生毕业设计（论文）附件 附件C：文献综述 widely cited. His argument for standardization "the earth is flat" is plausible and convenient for his followers to quote to justify their position. Levitt, in his classic article on globalization, suggests that there may be aspects of customer expectations that are universal across products and market segments and therefore should be conveyed in a standardized fashion across cultures (Cervellon & Dube, 2000). According to Levitt, corporations should take advantage of economies of scale in producing and marketing the same product at the same price with the same message all over the world at the same time (Levitt, 1983).

2.1.3 Other advocates

Other advocates of the standardization strategy share Levitt's view. De Mooij asserts that just as people show more similarities than differences, so it's also true of advertising techniques that influence people and that the similarities justify advertising across borders (De Mooij, et al, 1991). Link G. L. upholds this school of thought by arguing that more and more markets recognize the need to build a global brand image and identity and that resistance to global advertising should and could be overcome (Link, 1988). Another supporter of global advertising, Peebles recognizes local differences, but contends that there are not insurmountable obstacles to global campaigns (Peebles, 1988).

2.2 Localization

The localization advertising approach, sometimes called "adoption", "customization", "specialization", is referred to as designing specific advertising programs to fit with the unique characteristics of each particular markets.

While some proponents of standardization advertising strategy vehemently advocate their theory, many advertising practitioners and researchers argue to the contrary. They contend that while people's basic needs and desires may well be similar, the ways they go about satisfying them vary from country to country (Caillat & Muller, 1996). The "global market" still consists of hundreds of nations, each with their own customs, life styles, economies, and buying habits, price system and on this ground, it's necessary for marketers to take these differences into account when they target foreign markets. Thus, these advertising researchers and practitioners put forward their theory of localized

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重庆大学本科学生毕业设计（论文）附件 附件C：文献综述 advertising.

Proponents of localization pointed out that most blunders in international advertising occurred because advertisers failed to understand foreign cultures. Ricks, Arpan, and Fu (1974) attributed these blunders to blatant rejection of existing customs and innocent insensitivity to the environment. Mueller (1987) compared Japanese advertisements with American advertisements for similar products and observed numerous differences between the two types. Advertisements of each country exhibited some degree of sensitivity to the cultural uniqueness of the particular consuming market. Synodinos, Keown, and Jacobs (1989) investigated advertising practices across 15 countries. They found striking dissimilarities in the creative approach. The researchers attributed such dissimilarities not only to cultural factors but also to production costs and length of time or amount of space of advertisements. Findings of research studies conducted in the last 15 years seem to suggest an increasing trend toward the use of the localized approach.

Besides, some scholars and practitioners believe that advertising is more difficult to standardize than the other elements of the marketing mix. For instance, Boddewyn et al (1986) state that advertising is more resistant to uniformization than products and brands. Because of these characteristics, the visual and verbal parts of advertising are in particular sensitive and use of local language, models and scenery increases the probability for the advertisement to be effective.

The controversy over the use of standardized versus localized advertising approaches may continue for decades. While this debate still goes on and no ultimate agreement has been reached, many practitioners keep on failing to get their message across the target consumers, even offending them as a result of not taking care of the local customs, beliefs, values, economic reality, and legal regulations of a new market. The present-day situation of international advertising necessitates further cross-cultural research to demystify the dilemma, for the very reason that international advertising is advertising that reaches across national and cultural boundaries, that is, an attempt to persuade its potential consumers across cultures. To comply with this demand, this paper will primarily investigate the influence of culture on international advertising.

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重庆大学本科学生毕业设计（论文）附件 附件C：文献综述

Works Cited

[1] Boddewyn, J. L., et al. 1986. Standardization in international marketing: Is Ted

Levitt in fact right? Business Horizon, 29 (6): 69-75.

[2] Brown, D. L. 1923. Export advertising. New York: Ronald Press.

[3] Caillat, Z., & Muller, B. 1996. Observations: The influence of culture on American

and British advertising: An exploratory comparison of beer advertising. Journal of Advertising Research, 79-88.

[4] Cervellon, M., & Dube, L. 2000. Standardization versus cultural adaptation in food

advertising: Insights from a two-culture market. International Journal of Advertising, 429-447.

[5] Dahl, S. 2004. Intercultural research, the current state of knowledge. Middlesex

University Discussion Series.

[6] De Mooij, R., et al. 1991. Advertising worldwide. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall

International Ltd.

[7] Hofstede, G. 2001. Cultures’ consequences, comparing values, behaviors,

institutions, and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

[8] Holden, N. 2002. Cross-cultural management: A knowledge management approach.

Harlow: Prentice Hall – Financial Times.

[9] Levitt, T. 1983. Globalization of Markets, Harvard Business Review, 61 (3): 92-102.

[10] Link, Q. L. 1988. Global advertising: An update. The Journal of Consumer

Marketing, 5 (2): 69-74.

[11] Mueller, D., & Barbara, O. 1987. Reflections of culture: An analysis of Japanese

and American advertising appeals. Journal of Advertising Research, 23, 51-59.

[12] Peebles, D. M. 1988. Executive insights don't write off global advertising: A

commentary, International marketing Review, 6, 73-78.

[13] Ricks, D., Jeffrey, A., & Marilyn, F. 1974. Pitfalls in advertising overseas. Journal

of Advertising Research, 5, 47-51.

[14] Samovar, L., & Porter, R. 2006. Intercultural communication: A reader. Belmont:

Wadsworth, Inc.

[15] Synodinos, N., & Jacobs, L. 1989. Transitional advertising practices: A survey of

leading brand advertisers. Journal of Advertising Research, 7, 43-50.

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