费迪南德?德?索绪尔（Ferdinand de Saussure，1857-1913）是现代语言学的创始人。他是一位杰出的语言学家。作为一门新兴人文学科的开创者，他对语言哲学的影响也极为广泛深刻。

索绪尔出生于日内瓦，父亲是一位科学家。他从小受到自然科学的教育，同时也得到良好的语言教育和语言学教育，掌握法语、德语、英语和拉丁语，初通梵文。15岁时就写了一篇《语言论》。曾于日内瓦大学和莱比锡大学，研习物理、化学和希腊文。莱比锡大学当时是新语法学家的中心，在那的学习大致确定了索绪尔后来以语言学为业的道路。也就在这个时期，他发表了他的第一篇重要论文，《论印欧系语言中原因的原始系统》，引起学术界的重视，而那时他才年仅21岁。获得博士学位后，索绪尔移居巴黎，在高等研究学院讲授梵文、哥特语、古高地德语以及印欧语文学概况。1891年，他开始到日内瓦大学任教。日内瓦与巴黎的学术研究相比相对滞后。索绪尔穷究一生，不带任何传奇色彩。他在世时只是著名的语言学家，但他作为一个哲学家的地位，却是直到他死后才为人们所认可的。

索绪尔生前只发表过很少几篇相当专业的论文。1907-19xx年期间，他在日内瓦大学担任普通语言学课程的教学。19xx年他去世以后，他的学生和同事根据几本听课笔记才汇编成《普通语言学教程》一书，出版发行。索绪尔不仅吝于发表，他留下的笔记也很少，因此编辑这本书很不容易。因为，跟所有的老师一样，他讲课时也是有很多重复，甚至不一致的内容。难得的是编辑者们没有放弃，合并梳理成一本书，从而造就了一部惊世巨著。

《普通语言学教程》这部著作主要由绪论和附录两部分组成。绪论部分主要阐述了索绪尔对于语言系统的看法。索绪尔认为语言系统具有自主性和形式化这两个特点。他把语言现象划分为“内部要素”和“外部要素”两部分，并以此作为语言研究的前提。“内部要素”是指语言系统内符号与符号之间所形成的相互制约、相互对立的关系；“外部要素”则是指与语言有间接关系的政治、经济、文化、宗教、地理、历史等社会因素。因为索绪尔认为“内部要素”与“外部要素”之间无联系，且进行语言研究必须建立起一个界限清晰的“语言系统”。所以，他说：“我们关于语言的定义是要把一切跟语言的组织、语言的系统无关的东西，简言之，一切跟我们用‘外部语言学’这个术语所指的东西排除出去。”另外，索绪尔还阐发了“语言符号的价值决定于语言系统整体性质”的观点，并将此观点以及上面所提及的观点合在一起，共同支撑起关于语言系统具有自主性的说法。实际上，此举的真正目的是为语言学的研究对象下定义，且以此厘清语言和言语之间的关系。

语言是言语行为的社会部分，是个人被动地从社会接受而储存于头脑中的系统。它存在于个人意志之外，是社会每个成员共同具有的，是一种社会心理现象。言语是言语行为的个人部分，是个人对语言系统的运用。语言和言语紧密相连，互为前提。个人要说话使人理解，必须用语言，同时语言的存在又必须体现在言语当中，而且，使语言发生变化的也是言语。所以，语言既是言语的工具，又是言语的产物，但“这并不妨碍它们是两种绝对不同的东西”

在对语言学进行概述之后，《普通语言学教程》的附录部分进一步详细叙述了索绪尔的音位观、符号观以及结构主义研究方法论。他认为语言可为语音符号和文字符号，语音由心灵激活而被赋予意义，文字则只是语音的无生命的、随意的、可有可无的替代物。在符号观中，索绪尔对符号的“任意性”和“线条性”展开阐述，并且重点论述了符号的“不变性”与“可变性”特点。由此他不但揭

示了“能指”与“所指”在特定语言系统中具有任意性联结，还发现了“符号在很大程度上要逃避社会大众的意志”的特点。

语言学的符号理论，语言作为一种符号，指导着人们的行为活动，所谓的符号又分为“能指”和“所指”。索绪尔认为，任何语言符号是由“能指”和“所指”构成的，“能指”指语言的声音形象，“所指”指语言所反映的事物的概念。比如英语的“tree”这个单词，它的发音就是它的“能指”，而“树”的概念就是“所指”。“能指”和“所指”是不可分割的，就像一个硬币的两面；但是，索绪尔认为，某个特定的能指和某个特定的所指的联系不是必然的，而是约定俗成的。比如在“树”这个词中，树的概念和“树”的特定发音不是必然结合在一起的，“树”在英文中的读音和在法文、拉丁文中的读音明显不同，但却都能表达了“树”的意思。这就是符号的任意性原理。符号的任意性原则是索绪尔语言学的一条重要原则，它支配着索绪尔的整个语言的语言学系统，是头等重要的。 另外，索绪尔还认为“演变”和“状态”是语言现象本身同时具备的两个特点，但从语言研究的角度来看，对语言“演变”的研究（历时语言学）和对语言“状态”的研究（共时语言学）却是相互排斥的关系。他主张语言研究应把注意力投放于对语言的共时态研究上。除此之外，索绪尔还提出了结构主义分析方法中的两个重要概念——“组合关系”和“聚合关系”。可以肯定地说，他对于“共时/历时”两种语言研究类型的区分以及对于结构关系两方面概念的阐述在语言学方法论上具有极其积极的意义。

索绪尔无疑是一个伟大的开创者，他的魅力似乎一直在被发掘之中，从最先在语言学上全面接受他的理论的特鲁别茨科伊到将他介绍向更广阔领域的哲学家梅洛—庞蒂，都认识到了他的伟大，但也许都没有预料到，他的魅力会这么持久而深刻。

第二篇：语言学 总结

Chapter 1 introduction

Definition of linguistics

The scientific study or systematic study of languages.

Science--linguistics----------literature

Scopes of linguistics

Microlinguistics微观语言学

The study of language itself; it studies the various aspects of language, including sound, form and meaning.

Sound: phonetics, phonology

Form: morphology, syntax

Meaning: semantics, (pragmatics)

Macrolinguistics

The study of language in relation to other disciplines (interdisciplinary studies):

Psycholinguistics: language and mind, language acquisition, comprehension and production

Neurolinguistics: language processing and representation

Stylistics: science of literature, etc.

Some Linguistic Distinctions

1.Descriptive & prescriptive grammars

2.Synchronic & diachronic linguistics

共时语言学 历时语言学

3.Langue 语言 & parole言语 by Saussure

4.Competence语言能力 & performance语言应用 by Chomsky

5.Syntagmatic & paradigmatic relations

（横）组合关系和（纵）聚合关系

6.Functionalism 功能主义& formalism 形式主义 `

A system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communications

Design Features-- -- Features that define our human language

I.Arbitrariness 任意性

II.Duality 双重性/两重性

III.Productivity创造性

IV.Interchangeability互换性

V.Displacement 移位性

VI.Specialization 专门性

VII.Cutural transmission传递性

VIII.Discreteness 离散性

IX.Learnability习得性

II Design Features of Language

1. Arbitrariness: forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning II Design Features of Language

In other words, it is impossible to predict the meaning from the form, or vice versa. Look at the following diagram.

word

form meaning

1

onomatopoeia象声词 1

Bees buzz; they go bzzz. Apes gibber.猴子唧唧叫 Birds chirp; they go tweet tweet. Roosters crow. 公鸡喔喔叫 Cuckoos go cuckoo. Hens cluck. 母鸡咯咯嗒 Donkeys bray; they go hee-haw. Chicks peep. 小鸡唧唧唧 Doves coo. Bulls bellow. Cows moo 老牛哞哞哞 Geese honk. Ducks quack.鸭子嘎嘎嘎 Horses neigh or whinney. Cats mew. 小猫喵喵叫 Lions roar.

Frogs croak.青蛙呱呱呱 Owls hoot; they go hoo.

Roosters crow; they go Goats bleat.小羊咩咩咩 cock-a-doodle-doo. Pigs grunt. 小猪呼噜噜 Turkeys go gobble gobble. Mice squeak. 老鼠吱吱叫 Wolves howl. Dogs bark. 小狗汪汪叫

onomatopoeia象声词 2

Design Features of Language

Animals make much the same sounds around the world, but each language expresses them differently.

Arbitrary and onomatopoeic effect may work at the same time.

―It is only when you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.‖ (Widdowson)

II Design Features of Language

The arbitrary link between a linguistic sign and its meaning, however, is also conventional.

Read the following joke

A naughty boy beginning to learn ABC is bothering his teacher repeatedly:

―Why we shall read it A?‖

―Why we shall read it B?‖ ……

The annoyed teacher pinched his nose.

―Auch, my nose!‖

The annoyed teacher pinched his ear.

―Auch, my ear!‖

Then the teacher asked:

―Why you call it your ear and nose?‖

―It is so named and so called.‖

―Alright, ABC is so named and so called.‖

Design Features of Language:duality

Also called double articulation( 双重性）: the property of having two levels of structure. 人类语言的双重性主要是指（1 ）用本身无意义的语音构成有意义的语言单位这一事实；（2 ）此外，还指用一个层次上的成分构成另一个层次上的更大单位。― 分层— 一级一级的组织— 是有限的手段无限使用的物质表现，是人类语言最显著的特征。‖ （Bolinger & Sears ）

Design Features of Language—productivity

Also called Creativity: the ability that we all have to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including sentences that we 2

have never heard before, but that are appropriate to the situation in which they are uttered.

This feature equips us with the ability to produce completely new utterances and ideas. Design Features of Language—displacement

While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.

A human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire language.

Language is a tool of communication—Roman Jacobson

What do we communicate?

Functions of Language

1.Phatic function/communion交感功能

2.Directive function指令功能

3.Informative function信息传达

4.Interrogative function信息索取

5.Expressive function感情功能

6.Evocative function激发功能

7.Performative function施为功能

8.Recreational function娱乐功能

9.Metalinguistic function元语言功能, etc.

What functions of language being used ？

Good morning, Ms Zhang! Hello, Mary.

It‘s really cold today.

Yeah, really.

Let‘s begin our class now.

The main design features of languages are arbitrariness, duality, creativity and displacement.

I love this class.

parody (仿化）

What I mean is, I do hope you can enjoy the class

Chapter 2 phonetics

The articulators/organs of speech

(Page 27 )

Three cavities related to speech:

Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔

Oral cavity 口腔

.Nasal cavity 鼻腔

Vocal Organs

Initiator /Producer

1.pharyngeal cavity

2. oral cavity

3.nasal cavity

Chapter 2 The Sounds of Language (1)

Consonants: Place of Articulation

1.bilabials [p], [b], [m] [w] 双唇音

3

2.labiodentals [f], [v] 唇齿音

3.dentals/interdentals [θ]、[?] 齿音

4.alveolars [t,d,l,n.s,z,r] 齿龈音

5.palatals [? ? t? d? j] 腭音

6.velars [k g ? ]软腭音

7.glottal [h] 喉音

Cardinal Vowels

A set of arbitrary reference points fixed with the tongue put in most easily felt positions. Distinctive Features p.40

Also called phonemic features are features that distinguish one phoneme from another.

The feature of being with one and without the other is represented by two values: +, - Features that are not distinctive are called redundant features

What Are the Distinctive Features?

[m] vs.[b]: [nasal]

[m]: [+bilabial], [+voice], [+nasal]

[b]: [+bilabial], [+voice], [-nasal]

What about [b] vs.[d] ?

Free Variation 自由音变

A. Definition: Two or more sounds occur in the same position without change of meaning.

E.g.:direction [i]/ [ai];

either [i]/ [ai]

B. Free variation does not change the meaning of a word; it is the result of differences in pronunciation or dialect.

自由音变vs.不自由音变(Add)

不自由音变指在语流中只要出现音变条件，音变现象就必然发生，如北京话的上声变调:[shui214~35zhun214] （水准）。

自由音变指在语流中虽出现音变条件，但音变现象不一定必然发生，变和不变是两可的，因环境和个人习惯而异。如北京话的―七、八‖变调。―七、八 ‖本调为阴平，位于去声前可读成阳平。如―七天七夜‖，―七上八下‖，―七嘴八舌‖， ―七零八落‖等。 Some rules in phonology 1

Sequential rules: which govern the combination of sound in a particular language (p.42)

/S/ + /p， t ，k/ + /r， l， j， w/

In English, there may be at most three consonants before the peak and four after it. e.g. : sixths

Some rules in phonology 2 (35-36)

Liason rule连音 :later on, there are

Elision rule省音: mostly

Assimilation rule同化, including

1. progressive顺同化: stops, stabs

2. regressive—逆同化: immovable, ingratitude, think, sun glasses

4

Assimilation

Also called co-articulation. One sound takes on some or all of a neighbouring sound. 同化是语流音变中最常见的现象。为了发音便利，相邻音互相影响、相互调整，使原来不相同、不相近的音，变为相同或相近的音。如鼻音化nasalization Syllable音节

Chapter 3 Morphology

Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学

Morphology is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words and the rules of word formation.

Morphology falls into two categories: inflectional morphology (study of inflections) and lexical/derivational morphology (study of word formation).

Basic units of meaning

Word-formation

1.Compounding 合成法

Lookers-on

2.Derivation 派生法

Sad sadness

3. Conversion 转化法

Guess , a guess

4. Backformation 逆生法

Donation, donate

5.clipping/shortening/abbreviation 缩略法

Demonstration, demo

6. Blending 拼缀法

Brunch: breakfast+lunch

7. acronym: 首字母拼音词APEC

8.Intialism首字母缩略词

GPS

9. Borrowing 借词法 kung fu

Compounding

When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will often be in this category. E.g.Ice-cream

When they are not, the class of the second or final word will decide the grammatical category. E.g.Greenhouse

Chapter 4 syntax

Syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language. Simply speaking, it is the study of the formation of sentences. There are different approaches to syntax in the linguistic field:

The traditional approach,

the structural approach

the generative grammar are discussed here.

P75

IC analysis 1直接成分分析法

The father of American structuralism — Leonard Bloomfield.

5

Theoretical base:

a sentence not only has a linear structure, but a hierarchical structure made up of layers of layers of word groups.

Immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析法—a descriptive approach

A sentence is viewed as made up by two-part constructions on a series of levels or layers. The big word groups contain some smaller ones and the smaller ones may in turn contain some still smaller ones.

The word groups in a sentence in called its constituents 成分.

Immediate Constituents Analysis is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings 二分法until the level of single words is reached.

Constituents as parts of a bigger word group are called its immediate constituents (ICs).直接成分

the final cuts are known as the ultimate constituents (UCs) 最终成分.

IC Analysis 4：Vertical bars （add)

IC Analysis 5 ： brackets p.76

IC Analysis 4：A Tree Diagram Problems with IC-analysis 6 p.83

TG Grammar

Originated in the late 1950s with the American linguist Noam Chomsky, who gradually established the well-known Transformational-Generative (TG) Grammar.

TG Grammar has seen several stages of development, involving putting forward, revising, and canceling of many specific rules, hypotheses, mechanisms, and theoretical models.

TG grammar

Innateness hypothesis 天赋论 （269-270）

Competence and performance （16-17）

Generative

Transformation

Deep structure and surface structure（85）

Standard Theory （85）

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)语言习得机制

Chomsky believes that a child is born with LAD, which probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-making device（语言的假设,linguistic universal(语言普遍性) , and an evaluation procedure(评价 ).

5 Semantics

Semantics is the study of meaning in language. (p.104) 106 107 108

Communication

Linguistic meaning

Sentence meaning

Lexical meaning

Grammatical meaning

Speaker‘s meaning

Paralinguistic meaning

Non-linguistic meaning

6

Lexical and structural meaning

Grammatical meaning (syntactic and morphological)

Functional words

Lexical meaning

Content words

It is arguable that the ?functional words‘ have any referent in the physical world. Leech‘s ―Seven Meanings‖

1. conceptual meaning

2. connotative

3. social

4. affective

5. reflective

6. collocative

7. thematic

Denotation and Connotation

Denotation is a straightforward, ?literal‘ meaning of the word every member of the language speaking community will agree on. 指称意义

Connotation is not the basic meaning of the word but some emotive or evaluative meanings associated with the word by individual language users in their mind. 内涵意义 Leech‘s ―Seven Meanings‖ 111-

1.Conceptual meaning (denotative meaning/cognitive meaning, central meaning, core meaning)概念义--词的核心意义.

2. Connotative meaning (above its purely conceptual content.)内涵/附加义

Compared with conceptual meaning, connotative meaning is peripheral, unstable, indeterminate and open-ended.

Leech‘s ―Seven Meanings‖112

e.g. pig, dog, cat, etc.

old (and worn out), blue (and down-hearted), tall (and handsome)

A monkey: a child who is full of annoying playfulness and trick

A parrot: a person who repeats, often without understanding, the words or actions of another

3. Social meaning 社会义113 (about the contexts or the social circumstances of language use) as reflected in dialects, slangs, jargons and other styles of language use. e.g. steed—horse– gee-gee

diminutive– tiny– wee

Leech‘s ―Seven Meanings‖113

4. Affective meaning/emotive (the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer)感情义 e.g.nigger, fascist, politician, statesman,

cop

5.Reflective/reflected meaning (association with another sense of the same expression)反映义

e.g. intercourse, nucleur

Leech‘s ―Seven Meanings‖116

6. Collocative meaning: The associations of a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context搭配义.

7

Meticulous, fussy;

pretty, handsome, etc.

Full (moon), complete victory

Leech‘s ―Seven Meanings‖116

Thematic meaning主题义: Meaning that arises out of the way in which the writer or speaker organizes his message. It‘s mainly a matter of choice b/t alternative grammatical constructions.

Jack was presented with a gold medal.

A gold medal was presented to Jack.

The Olympic Committee presented Jack with a gold medal.

P118 p102-p125

Chapter 6 Pragmatics

definition of pragmatics

Micropragmatics

Reference 指称143

Deixis 指示144

Anaphora 回指 145

Presuppposition 预设146

Reference 144

The act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something by inference.

The philosophy of language--Macrolinguisitics

Speech act theory by J.Austin

1950s, Oxford philosopher John Austin initiated the first major theory in the study of language use. The major idea of the theory is that things can be done with words.

Austin‘s Speech Act Theory

奥斯丁的言语行为理论 p.148

A speaker is not merely saying something to describe states of affairs, but he is also actively doing things.

After he has done it, the situation of the outside world will change accordingly.

The action of producing an utterance is seen as consisting of several related speech acts: Speech acts 148

1.Locutionary act 言内行为/发话行为：the act of saying, the literal meaning of the utterance;

3.llocutionary act 言外行为/施为行为 (intended meaning) (ordering, requiring, stating)

4. Perlocutionary act 言后行为/言后之果 (intended effect), ( persuading, convincing, intimidating, appeasing, exasperating, assuring)

Indirect Speech Acts

Speakers often perform one illocutionary act implicitly by way of performing another explicitly.

The explicitly performed act is used to convey a direct speech act and the speaker relies on background knowledge he shares with the hearer to express his real intention. Classification of iIlocutionary act by Searl 150

Representatives 阐述类: It‘s cold today.

8

Directives 指令类 Close the window please.

Commissives 承诺类 I‘ll fix it.

Expressives 表达类 I‘m sorry.

Declarations宣告类 I declare the meeting open.

The Conversational Implicature

会话含义

Proposed by Oxford philosopher Herbert Paul Grice through the William James lectures he delivered at Harvard in 1967.

Conversational implicature 会话含义 154

Conversational implicatures

A kind of extra meaning that is not literally contained in the utterance.

When the speaker makes a blatant show of flouting one of the maxims, he is actually trying to lead the hearer to look for the implied meaning.

The Cooperative Principle 153-7

Background:

People do not usually say things directly, they tend to imply them. Therefore, there exists a problem: How people manage to convey the logical semantics (implicature). Grice found that there is some regularity in conversation.

CP and its maxims 154

The maxim of quality 质量准则

The maxim of quantity 数量准则

The maxim of relation 关系准则

The maxim of manner 方式准则

Maxims of Quality

Supermaxim: Try to make your contribution one that is true.

6 Maxims of PP (158)

Maxim of Tact 得体准则

Maxim of Generosity 慷慨准则

Maxim of Approbation 赞扬准则

Maxim of Modesty 谦虚准则

Maxim of Agreement 赞同准则

Maxim of Sympathy 同情准则

Maxim of Tact 得体准则

―White lies‖ in conversations:

A： Shall we go out for dinner this evening?

B: Ｉ‘m afraid I will have to deal with my homework.

Maxim of Generosity 慷慨准则

Associated with superficially ?nice‘:

Would you mind …

I wonder if you could…

Could you…

Maxim of Approbation 赞扬准则

You look smart today!

What a marvelous meal you‘ve cooked!

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Maxim of Modesty 谦虚准则

That was silly of me.

How stupid of me!

Maxim of Agreement 赞同准则

A: The book is very well written.

B: Yes, well written as a whole. But there are some rather boring patches. Don‘t you think?

Maxim of Sympathy 同情准则

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Used in either a congratulation or condolence

I am so happy your daughter got first prize!

I am terribly sorry about your cat.

Post-Gricean Developments

1. The Q-and R-principles

First proposed in his ―Toward a New Taxonomy for Pragmatic Inference: Q-Based and R-Based Implicatures‖

The Q-principle is intended to invoke the first maxim of Grice‘s Quantity, and the R-principle the Relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims.

Post-Gricean Developments

2. The Relevance Theory

Proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986.

Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.

Communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding, it also involves inference.

From the speaker‘s side, communication should be seen as an act of making clear one‘s intention to express something. This act they call ostensive act. In other words, a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-inferential.

Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics

Language is a city to the building of which every human being brought a stone. ——Ralph Waldo Emerson

?Once you open your mouth, you are placed.

? —— Pygmalion by Bernard Shaw

Points to cover

?1. special terms:

?Standard language,

?dialects,

?registers,

?pidgins and creoles,

? code switching,

?language sexism

?2. discussion:

?Differences between English and Chinese in terms of linguistic taboos and euphemism 10

?The relationship between language and gender

Sociolinguistics 196

?The study of language in relation to society.

?It studies the relations between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the language users live.

8.2 Language varieties

语言变体

?Language change from region to region, from social group to another, from individual to individual.

?Language varieties are related to region, social class, educational background, and the degree of formality of a situation in which language is used, including standard language, dialects, registers, pidgins, creoles, etc.

Standard language 标准语言 1

Also called standard variety or standard dialect, standard language is the dominant, or prestigious variety.

It is the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language .

Standard language （add)

?1. Standard Chinese/Standard Mandarin, the phonology is based on Beijing dialect; the grammar is standardized to the body of modern literary works written in vernacular Chinese.

?2. RP:Received Pronunciation in British English

?3. SAE: Standard American English

Standard language 标准语言 1

Also called standard variety or standard dialect, standard language is the dominant, or prestigious variety.

It is the variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language .

8.2.2 Classification of Dialects

Regional dialects

Social dialects

Accents

Dialects of English

?Phonological differences

?Lexical differences

?Syntactic differences

Seven dialect areas in China

?官话、吴语、闽方言、赣方言、客家方言、湘方言、粤方言

?方言区划(一般分四个层次):

?区、片（次方言）、小片、点

?如: 吴语区——太湖片——苏沪嘉小片——苏州话

Dialects

The ―standard‖ dialects and vernaculars

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Black (vernacular) English

?Phonology

?Syntax

?History (Origin)

(1) The African slaves learned English from their colonial masters as a second language.

(2) Influences of the African languages spoken by the slaves.

(3) BE is closer to the Southern dialect of English.

8.2.4 Lingua franca 通用语

? A language which is used habitually by people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them

? Lingua francas说两种不同语言的人用第三种语言交流，这个第三种语言就是lingua franca。 比如，德国人和日本人用英语谈生意，英语就是他们的通用语。 ?A trade language； a contact language;an international language; an auxiliary language Pidgin

?Pidgin），指不同种语言混和而成的混合语。从纯粹语言学的观点看，皮钦语只是语言发展的一个阶段，指在没有共同语言而又急于进行交流的人群中间产生 .

? A pidgin language is a lingua franca which has no native speakers.

?Features

? Reduction in vocabulary and grammar

? Elimination of complexities and irregularities

The origin of the name ?-- Hebrew pidjom meaning ―trade or exchange‖

-- Chinese characters pei and ts'in meaning ―paying money‖

?带有鲜明地方特色的洋泾滨语

例如下面的竹枝词，就要用沪语或宁波官话发音才能辩明意思：

好法身而沙发身（ how fashion 而so fashion）

翘梯翘梯喝杯茶（HAVE TEA），

雪堂雪堂请侬坐（SIT DOWN），

红头阿三开泼度（KEEP DOOR），

自家兄弟勃拉茶（BROTHER），

爷叫泼茶娘卖茶（FATHER / MOTHER），

Pidgins and Creoles

A creole is a pidgin which has acquired native speakers.

?Features

? Expanding in structure and vocabulary to express the range of meanings

? Serving the range of functions required of a first language

?The origin of the name： French Creole ―half-breed‖

?Although both pidgins and creoles originate as highly restricted vernaculars of a particular kind, creoles can in certain circumstances achieve the status of standards.

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