题 目：姓 名：学 号：系 别：专 业：年级班级：指导教师：
论 英 语 的 隐 喻 机 制 张 三 四 0253244 外国语学院 英 语 2009级本科3班 张 无 忌
2013月5月
（小四1.5行距状态下，空两行）
(Please write the title of your BA
degree paper here)
Submitted by (Please write your name here)
Student ID number (Please write your ID here)
Supervised by (Please write the name of your tutor here)
A paper submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the
degree of Bachelor of Arts
The Foreign Languages Department
Zhoukou Normal University
May, 2013
毕业论文（设计）作者声明
本人郑重声明：所呈交的毕业论文是本人在导师的指导下独立进行研究所取得的研究成果。除了文中特别加以标注引用的内容外，本论文不包含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写的成果作品。
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本毕业论文内容不涉及国家机密。
论文题目： 论隐喻的运作机制
作者单位： 外国语学院英语专业2009级本科3班
作者签名： 张三四
20xx年5月
空两行、Times New
Roman、小四 Contents
Times New Roman、三号、加粗、居中
摘 要……..……………………………………………………………………………………….i Abstract…...……………………………………………………………………………………ii I. Introduction……………..…………………………………………………………………1 II. A Historical Retrospection of Metaphor…………………………………2
2.1 Aristotelian School: Metaphor—A Device of Rhetoric……………………2
2.2 The Platonic School—Language is Metaphorical…………………………………5
2.3 The Study of Metaphor from the 20th Century to the Present…………………6 III. On Similarity……………………………………………………………………………7
3.1 Similarity: A Fundamental Criterion for the Classification of Metaphor…7
3.2 Similarity and Culture…………………………………………………………………9
3.2.1 The Cultural Origins of Metaphor………………………………………………10
3.2.2 The Applications of Cultural Elements…………………………………………11
3.2.3 The Effects of Culture……………………………………………………………..12
3.3 Similarity and Category……………………………………………..…………………12 IV. On the Mechanism of Metaphor………………………………………….…15
4.1 Black?s Interaction Theory…………………………………….……..………..………15
4.2 Lakoffian Conceptual Metaphor Theory……………………………………………19
4.3 Conceptual Integration Theory………………………………………………………29 V. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………42 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………45 Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………… 46
小三、宋体、加粗、
两汉字之间空一
个汉字、居中
小四、宋体、
空两行 （小四状态下，空两行） 摘 要
小四、楷体、2倍行距
隐喻研究归根到底是隐喻机制的研究，它是隐喻研究的核心。两千多年来，隐喻一直被仅仅看作一种修辞手段，一种语言的陪衬，被看作是两种不同事物事先存在的相似性的比较或一个词对另一词的替代，进而形成对隐喻阐述的比较论和替代论。现代学者通过大量研究表明，隐喻不仅仅是一种修辞手段，更重要的是，是人类的主要认知方式。隐喻这一认知方式，给人们一种新的视角，创造一种相似。因此，现代学者着重于阐述相似是如何被创造出来的。在众多的隐喻理论中，影响较大的有布莱克和莱科夫的隐喻理论。 (大约200字左右)
关键词：隐喻；搭配；术语 小四、楷体、不加粗
（中文摘要的内容和关键词应与英文摘要相对应，关键词3-5个，词与词之间用分号分开）
i
（小四1.5行距状态下，空两行）
Times New Roman、
小三、加粗 Abstract Times New Roman 、 小四、2倍行距
The mechanism of metaphor is actually the nucleus of the study of metaphor. For more than two thousand years, metaphor was viewed as a device of rhetoric, an attachment to language. In accordance with this perspective, metaphor was a comparison between two things that do not belong to the same category or was regarded as one word used to substitute another because there were preexisting similarities between them. As a result of this perspective, two theories took shape: one was the Comparison Theory, the other was the Theory of Substitution. But modern scholars discard the perspective, holding that metaphor is not only a device of rhetoric, to be more important, it is a leading way for human beings to know this world, a way of thinking. （中文摘要的对应译文）
Key words: metaphor; collocation; terms
（注意：关键词3-5个，词与词之间用分号分开，除专有名词外，其他单词首字母不大写）
Times New Roman、小四、不加粗
ii
Please write the title of your BA degree paper here
I. Introduction （四号，加粗）
每段缩4个
字母 The study
of metaphor has long been with us and the focus of the study is the
mechanism of metaphor. It is the most significant and indispensable part of the study. For more than two thousand years, the study is carried on mainly from the perspective
of rhetoric, viewing metaphor as a device of rhetoric, an embellishment of language. The representative of the theories in this long period is Aristotle?s Comparison Theory and Quintilian?s Theory of Substitution. Because metaphor is not only a rhetorical phenomenon, but also one of cognition, the interpretation force of these theories is very limited. In 1936, I.A. Richards put forward Interaction Theory. Later Max Black made
an elaboration of the work of his. Interaction Theory claims that metaphor is a cognitively irreducible phenomenon that works not at the level of word combination, but much deeper, arising out of the interaction between the conceptual structures underlying the words. But the ones who really turn the study of metaphor to a new page are George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. The mark of this change is the publication of the book named Metaphors We Live By. The theory of Lakoff and Johnson?s is Conceptual Metaphor Theory. As these scholars regard metaphor as the creation of similarity, their theories concentrate on how the similarity is created and how the new meaning is produced though their interpretations are not perfect. Recently, another theory appeared—Conceptual Integration Theory or Blending Theory. Comparatively speaking, it is more convincing on the mechanism of metaphor than the other two.(以下省略，此部分字数最少不少于300字)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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II. A Historical Retrospection of Metaphor 二级标题、Times New
Roman小四号、顶格加粗、（一级标题上下，各空一行，如果是处于一页的第一行，那么上面不空行，仅下上下均不空行
面空一行）
2.1 Aristotelian School: Metaphor--A Device of Rhetoric
Andrew Ortony, one of the most influential writers on metaphor, has pointed out, and there are few who would disagree with him, that it is still the case that “Any serious study of metaphor is almost obliged to start with the works of Aristotle” (Ortony 3).（此处指引文来源：作者 页码）
In Poetics, Aristotle expounds the essence, function and the way of explanation of metaphor as three nuclei. He defines metaphor as “the application of an alien name by transference either from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy, that is, proportion”(Aristotle 71). Then he gives four kinds of metaphor.
All metaphors, Aristotle believes, fall into at least one of these four categories,
although analogy metaphors are the most pleasing. Aristotle also holds that metaphor can make the prosaic style charming, and stresses that it can only be confined to poetry (ibid. 72). This perspective leads to the later theorists making distinction between poetic language and everyday language. Especially in Chapter 21 and 22 of
2.1.1 The Origins of Aristotelian School
2
MLA “参考文献”格式范例 [1] Adams, Richard P. Faulkner: Myth and Motion[2] Aiken, Conrad. William Faulkner: The Novel as Form. Frederick J. Hoffman and Olga W.
Vickery. Eds. William Faulkner: Three Decades of Criticism. East Lansing: Michigan State UP, 1960.
[3] Barker, Deborah E., and Ivo Kamps. Much Ado about Nothing: Language and Desire in The
Sound and the Fury. Mississippi Quarterly: The Journal of Southern Culture. 46.3 (Summer 1993): 373-93.
[4] Bleikasten, Andre. Faulkner’s As I Lay Dying. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1973.
[5] Carter, Ronald, ed. Language and Literature: An Introductory Reader in Stylistics. London:
George Allen & Unwin, 1982.
[6] Faulkner, William. Absalom, Absalom! New York: The Modern Library, 1936.
［7］ 李柄穆.理想的图书馆员和信息专家的素质与形象[J].图书情报工作，2000，（2）：
58.
［8］江平.民法学[M].北京：中国政法大学出版社，2000.
［9］ 王明亮. 关于中国学术期刊标准化数据库系统工程的进展 ［EB/OL］. http://www.
/pub/wml.txt/980810-2.html, 1998-08-16/1998-10-04.
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I would like to thank all those who have given me their generous help, commitment and enthusiasm, which have been the major driving force to complete the current paper....
（Acknowledgement: 此部分不宜过长，最长不超过120个单词。致谢部分必须提到指导教师的名字。）
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文章中的夹注，写法如下：
? 1）论文正文中提及作者名的，只在括号内注明页码即可。
? This fact led the critic Owen Thomas to conclude that Emily Dickinson
“was well aware of the world outside her little room, that in fact she used the language of this outside world to crate some of here best poetry”(523). ? 2）如论文正文中没有提及作者姓名，夹注中应注明作者和页码。
? But an economist who predicted the depression of 1981 a year in advance
fears the price of gold will decline slowly for at least ten years (Goodserve 143).
? 3）若所引用的作者资料在后面的Works Cited中不止一处的，则应在夹注
中注明其题目，除非在文中已经提到了。
? Chomsky claims that all humans inherit the same basic linguistic structural
framework upon which their community?s particular language is fitted (Language 29-41).
? 4）如论文引用的是多卷本书籍，括号内应注明卷号和页码。
? Terman?s studies of gifted children reveal a pattern of accelerated language
acquisition (2: 279).
? 5）如引用小说则先在括号内注明页码，再注明其所在的章节。
? Fitzgerald?s narrator captures Gatsby in a moment of isolation: “A sudden
emptiness seemed to flow now from the windows and the great doors, endowing with complete isolation the figure of the host”(56; ch. 3).
? 6）引用戏剧，则应在括号内列出幕、场和行。
? In his famous advice to the players, Hamlet defines the purpose of theater,
“Whose end, both at he first and now, was and is, to hold, as ?twere, the mirror up to nature” (3.2.21-23).
? 7）引用诗歌，则应在括号内注明其所在的诗节（如有的话）和诗行。
? When Homer?s Odysseus came to the hall of Ciurce, he found his men
“mild / in her soft spell, fed on her drug of evil” (10.209-11).
? 8）如果引用的是他人引用的语言，则在括号内注明“qtd. in”。
? “We only used seven signs in his presence,” says Fouts. “All of his signs
5
were lwarned from the other chimps at the laboratory” (qtd. In Toner 24). ? 9）如果引用的不止一种资料来源，则在括号内分别注明，中间用分号隔开。 ? With intensive training, the apes in this study learned more than 200 signs
or signals (Desmond 229; Linden 173).
以下是文中加注写法的补充说明：
该部分的文中加注的写法和20xx年.20xx年完全一样，这里是补充说明。如果引用的是汉语作者，引用的集体作者，引用无作者，引用同一作者多部文献，引用不同作者多部文献，等等引用，如何夹住的问题。
夹注（Parenthetical Citation）的格式：
引文出处使用括号夹注的方法（一般不使用脚注或者尾注）。正文中，括号夹注（作者姓氏+页码）放在句末标点以内，但不得放在引文的引号以内。引语段（block quotation）的括号夹注不属于单句，因而不得将其放在句末的标点以内。直接引语都必须标明页码，以便读者查找。
1 引用整篇文献的观点
引用整篇文献（即全书或全文）观点时一般不用标注页码，有两种情况，
? 一种是作者的姓氏在正文中没有出现，如：
Charlotte and Emily Bronte were polar opposites, not only in their personalities
but in their sources of inspiration for writing (Taylor).
? 另一种情况是作者的姓氏已在正文同一句中出现，按MLA的规范不需要使用括号夹注， 如：
Taylor claims that Charlotte and Emily Bronte were polar opposites, not only in
their personalities but in their sources of inspiration for writing.
在英文撰写的论文中引用中文著作或者期刊，括号夹注中只需用汉语拼音标明作者的姓氏，不得使用汉字，如：
(Fang 12)
2. 引用文献中具体观点或文字
引用文献中某一具体观点或文字时必须注明该观点或者该段文字出现的页码，没有页码是文献引用不规范的表现。若作者的姓氏已在正文同一句中出现，则不需要在括号夹注中重复。
6
According to Marcuse, Ancient writers attributed the invention of the
monochord to Pythagoras, who lived in the sixth century BC (197).
2.1 引用多位作者写作的同一文献
二至三位作者：
Among intentional spoonerisms, the “punlike metathesis of distinctive features
may serve to weld together words etymologically unrelated but close in their sound
and meaning” (Jakobson and Waugh 304).
（如果有三位作者，在括号夹注中应用逗号分隔他们的姓氏，如：(Alton, Davies,
and Rice 56)。）
The study was extended for two years, and only after results were reviewed by
an independent panel did the researchers publish their findings (Blaine et al. 35).
2.2 引用同样姓氏的不同作者
假若两个或两个以上的作者有同样的姓氏，则括号夹注中应同时使用他们名字的首字母，如：
Although some medical ethicists claim that cloning will lead to designer
children (R. Miller 12), others note that the advantages for medical research outweigh
this consideration (A. Miller 46).
引用中文著作或期刊时同姓作者的情况较多，应在括号夹注中使用他们名字的首字母加以区分，如：
(S.R. Wang 26) (J.X. Wang 30)
3 引用团体作者（corporate author）
引用团体作者的作品，括号夹注中应使用团体的名称，如：
It was apparent that the American health care system needed “to be fixed and
perhaps radically modified” (Public Agenda Foundation 4).
4 引用无作者文献
引用无作者文献，如果文献标题没有出现在正文里，则括号夹注中应使用该标题或者（如果标题过长的话）使用该标题中的关键词组，如：
7
An anonymous Wordsworth critic once argued that his poems were too emotional
(“Wordsworth Is A Loser” 100).
在使用关键词组时应该选择标题开始部分的词组。
无论是MLA还是APA的规范，独立出版物的标题或者标题中的关键词组用斜体标出，出版物内含的作品的名称以及未出版的作品（讲演、论文等）的标题或者标题中的关键词组则用引号标出。
5 引用书信、谈话中的观点或文字
书信和谈话（含电子邮件、访谈、电话等）无法在正文后面的参考文献中列出，但应该在正文中使用括号夹注的方法注明出处。例如：
Jesse Moore (telephone conversation, May 12, 1989) admitted the need for an
in-depth analysis of the otherness expressed in the work.
6 引用同一作者的多篇文献
按MLA规范，引用同一作者的多篇文献时，在括号夹注中应加入文献标题中的关键词组，如：
Lightenor has argued that computers are not useful tools for small children
(“Too Soon” 38), though he has acknowledged that early exposure to computer games
does lead to better small motor skill development (“Hand-Eye Development” 17).
或者
Computers are not useful tools for small children (Lightenor, “Too Soon” 38),
though he has acknowledged that early exposure to computer games does lead to
better small motor skill development (Lightenor, “Hand-Eye Development” 17).
或者
Lightenor has argued that computers are not useful tools for small children,
though he has acknowledged that early exposure to computer games does lead to
better small motor skill development (“Too Soon” 38 and “Hand-Eye Development”
17).
7 同时引用不同作者的多篇文献
括号夹注可以包括不同作者的多篇文献，文献按作者姓氏的字母顺序排列（注意分号的使用），如：
8
The dangers of mountain lions to humans have been well documented
(Rychnovsky 40; Seidensticker 114; Williams 30).
在MLA的规范中，如果不同作者的多篇文献过于冗长，则不用括号夹注，而使用脚注（见
4）。
8 引用非直接文献（indirect source）
论文应尽可能避免使用非直接文献（即二级文献secondary source），但在无法找到直接文献（即一级文献primary source）的情况下，引文可以从非直接文献中析出，例如：
Samuel Johnson admitted that Edmund Burke was an “extraordinary man” (qtd.
in Boswell 2: 450).
（注意：“qtd. in”中的字母“i”不得大写。）
引用非直接文献以后，在正文后参考文献著录中只需列入该非直接文献的条目（即上述实例中的“Boswell”和“Murzynski & Degelman, 1996”）。
9 引用文学作品和经典文献
按MLA的规范，有几种情况括号夹注内不标页码。 在引用剧本时应标出引文的幕、场、行，如：
In his famous advice to players, Shakespeare?s Hamlet defines the purpose of
theater, “whose end, both at the first and now, was and is, to hold, as ?twere, the
mirror up to nature” (3.2.21-23).
（也可用III.ii.23，来表示第三幕的第二场的第23行.）
这里的括号夹注表示引文来自剧本第三幕第二场的21至23行。（注意标点的使用。） 在引用诗歌时应标出引文的节、行，如：
When Homer?s Odysseus comes to the hall of Circe, he finds his men “mild / in
her soft spell, fed on her drug of evil” (10.209-11).
这里的括号夹注表示引文来自诗歌第10节的209至211行。对不分节的诗第一次引用时应说明括号里标的是行数，使用“line”，以后的引用则不需再说明。例如：
第一次引用：(lines 5-8)
以后的引用：(12-13)
在引用有章节、分册的小说的时候，应标出引文所在的页码、册数、章节，如：
9
One of Kingsolver?s narrators, teenager Rachel, pushes her vocabulary beyond
its limits. For example, Rachel complains that being forced to live in the Congo with
her missionary family is “a sheer tapestry of justice” because her chances of finding a
boyfriend are “dull and void” (117; bk. 2, ch. 10).
例子里的括号夹注表示引文来自该书第二册第十章的第117页。（注意标点和缩略语的使用。） 在引用《圣经》、《可兰经》等经典文献的时候，应标出引文的篇、章、节，如：
Consider the words of Solomon: “If your enemies are hungry, give them food to
eat. If they are thirsty, give them water to drink” (Bible, Prov. 25.21).
例子里的括号夹注表示引文来自旧约《圣经》的《箴言》篇第25章第21节。《圣经》各篇的缩写有标准的写法，因而使用时应该注意核对。
10 对引语文字的更改
直接引语如出现在正文中间，使用引语的句子不得违反英语语法，不得出现“句中句”。为了使含直接引语的句子合乎语法，往往有必要对引语的文字作一定的更改。如果要删除引语中个别词句，可以用省略号（ellipses“…”）取代删除的词句。如果要加入或者更改个别单词或者词组，则可以将需要加入或者更改的单词或词组放在方括号（square brackets“[ ]”）以内。例如：
删除词句：
He stated, “The ?placebo effect,? ... disappeared when behaviors were studied in
this manner” (Smith 276), but he did not clarify which behaviors were studied.
添加词组：
Smith (276) found that “the placebo effect, which had been verified in previous
studies, disappeared when [his own and others?] behaviors were studied in this
manner.”
? 无论删改还是添加字词均不得变更引语的原意。
? 注意：如果删除是在句内，应该空一格以后再加省略号。如果删除是在一句整句以后，则应在该整句最后的标点（句号、问号或惊叹号）不空格直接加省略号。省略号应该用三个句点。
11 引用网络和电子出版物
引用网络文献和电子出版物时文中夹注的基本原则与引用其他文献时是基本一致的。 引用网络和电子文献观点时有两种情况:
11.1 一种是引用网络与电子文献的全文观点（或做整体描述）,
如果作者的姓氏或研究项目/主题网站的名称已在正文同一句中出现，按MLA的规范不需要使用括号夹注，如：
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William I. Mitchell?s City of Bits discusses architecture and urban life in the context
of the digital telecommunications revolution.
Victorian Women Writers Project has tried to develop a “historical sociology” of
women?s writing in nineteenth-century England.
The database Duecento is an invaluable source for texts of medieval Itanlian poetry.
Romance Languages and Literature Home Page has links to many helpful
resources.
11.2 另一种情况是引用部分观点，如果作者的姓氏或研究项目/主题网站的名称在正文中没有出现，那么在括号夹注中需注明作者或项目名称，文章名称，段落。
One online film critic stated that Fitzcarraldo is “...a beautiful and terrifying
critique of obsession and colonialism” (Garcia, “Herzog: a Life,” par. 18). （其中“par.”指网页上的段落）
Hypertext, as one theorist puts it, is “all about connection, linkage, and
affiliation” (Moulthrop, “You Say,” par.19).
如果作者姓氏已给出，则夹注中只标注所缺项目：
“The debut of Julius Caesar,” according to Sohmer, “proclaimed
Shakespeare?s Globe a theater of courage and ideas, a place where an audience
must observe with the inner eye, listen with the inner ear” (par. 44).
11