Argumentation
Aims：
1． Knowing to define the term,
2． Comparing this style of writing with exposition, description, and narration
3． Knowing requirements of a GOOD argumentative essay
4． Knowing how to outline an augmentative essay: three parts.
Procedure: （theory-practice）
The purpose of exposition is to inform; the purpose of argumentation, on the other hand, is to convince. While an expository paper makes known something and explains it to make the reader understand, an argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and to approve a policy or a course of action that it proposes. Speeches on policies, editorials of newspapers, articles on political or theoretical questions, and various proposals are often argumentative.
Argumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writing --- description, narration, and above all exposition, for argumentation and exposition are very closely related --- argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.
Although they can take different shapes, argumentative essays have certain basic features in common. If you wish to write a good argumentative essay, you should do your best to meet the following requirements:
(1) A debatable point
It is imperative that the paper should have a debatable point, that is, something which can be viewed from more than one angle and is therefore open to dispute. Generally speaking, the following are not good themes.
1) Mere statements of facts
“Chinese doctors use acupuncture anesthesia to perform certain operations” is a fact that cannot be debated. But if it is changed into “acupuncture anesthesia should replace conventional anesthesia in all operations”, it becomes debatable.
2) Statements of personal preference
“Ba Jin is my favorite author” expresses personal preference which does not lead to dispute. But a statement like “Ba Jin is the greatest Chinese writer of the 20th century” is disputable and sufficient evidence should be provided.
3) Viewpoints that are generally accepted or can be easily verified
It is universally known that “noise pollution is harmful to people’s health”, but it is not generally accepted that “noise pollution is the most harmful of all environmental pollution”. The former viewpoint can be proved, but the later is arguable.
(2) Sufficient evidence
Since the point of your paper is not a fact, a statement of personal taste, or a viewpoint universally accepted, you will have to provide sufficient evidence to convince the reader. Sufficient evidence includes common knowledge; specific examples; hard, not soft, evidence, or facts, not opinions, unless the opinions are expert and authoritative; statistics; and quotations from authorities. Valid evidence is that which is clearly and directly connected with the point to be proved.
(3) Good logic
It is obvious that good logic is even more important to argumentation than to any other types
of writing. All the facts and reasons that are given as evidence should be logically connected with the conclusion and with each other. Any fallacy in logic or wrong step in reasoning would leave the reader in doubt about the whole argument.
There are generally two ways of reasoning:
1) Inductive reasoning (from specific facts to a general conclusion)
Inductive reasoning is the more common way. When you use induction, you start with facts and proceed from facts to a general conclusion. In other words, you move from specific examples to a general statement.
2) Deductive reasoning (from a general statement to a specific conclusion)
The process is just the opposite of inductive reasoning --- it moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion. It works on the model of syllogism --- a three-part argument in which there are two statements, known as the major premise and the minor premise, and a conclusion.
Here is an example of a syllogism:
A. All human beings make mistakes. (a general statement)
B. X is a human being.
C. Therefore, X makes mistakes. (a specific conclusion)
From the above example we can see that the major premise must be an accepted generalization, and the minor, a factual example of that generalization. If A and B are true, C, the conclusion, is bound to be true.
You must be very careful about your premises, especially your major premise, such statements as “all students love to study” and “women are more imaginative than men” are not generally accepted, and therefore cannot be used as major premises.
(4) Clear logic
A typical argumentative essay consists of three parts: an introduction which identifies the issue to be discussed and explains the importance of such a discussion; a body which presents the evidence; and a conclusion in which the proposition, if it is stated at the beginning, is reaffirmed.
In the body, it is advisable that you devote the first one or two paragraphs to a consideration of the other side of the case before stating and amplifying your own views. Then in each paragraph that follows, you add something new and important to your argument. The evidence you provide should be arranged
A. from the least important to the most important,
B. from the most familiar to the least familiar, and
C. from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult.
(5) Good use of the other three types of writing --- description, narration, and
especially the various methods of exposition
(6) An honest and friendly attitude
To argue is not to quarrel or fight. The force of an argument does not come from abuse, sarcasm, exaggeration, or fierce attack, but from solid evidence, logical reasoning, and careful analysis. A domineering or hostile tone could only raise doubts about your good faith and impair the credibility of your argument, whereas an honest and friendly attitude will help win the trust of your readers.
Take care that you neither overstate or understate, and avoid overuse of such words and phrases as “perhaps”, “maybe”, “sometimes”, “more often”, “nearly always”, “I think”, or “in my
opinion”, which invariably weaken the force of your argument.
Models
The Harmful Effects of the Multiple-Choice Test
The multiple-choice test is a common examination form that is widely used as a standard international testing method in various academic fields, especially in language testing. Some educators and teachers embrace it as a most scientific test form for its objectivity, accuracy and high efficiency of grading test papers. However, after many years of application, investigation and research, other teachers and educators have admitted that to judge students’ real and practical abilities, such testing method has many limitations and drawbacks. In my opinion, for all its efficiency, objectivity and validity, the multiple-choice test should not be widely used for the examinations of academic courses on campus.
Those who argue for the advantages of the multiple-choice test believe that such tests can greatly improve the accuracy and speed of test paper grading. The standardized answer sheets of such test make it possible for computers to replace men to grade the papers. Undoubtedly, the computerization of test paper grading not only improve the speed of grading test papers, but also eliminates the subjective factors of bias or preference that can not be totally avoided by those who grade them. Here, computers or electronic devices are considered as the norm for scientific testing method. It may be safe to check manufactured products by electronic devices for their qualities. Yet, to check the real abilities and potentials of complex human beings, such devices and such testing method are far from enough. In fact, many problems from such testing do exist.
First of all, it is convenient for students to cheat in the multiple-choice test. The standardization of answer sheets makes it easier for students to plagiarize others’ answers. The choices of A. B. C. D. are most clearly printed on the answer sheets or test papers. With only a quick glance, any student who attempts to cheat in the exam can surely steal the correct choice from whoever is nearby and whoever is considered as a good student. What’s more, some students may have some secret deal among themselves in the exam, delivering generous service to the needed. In this case, even when they are separated from each other with considerable distance by the proctor/invigilator, they can still succeed. The proctor may feel quite helpless because even though they sometimes see or feel students cheating, they cannot pinpoint or prove how the students are cheating in the exam. This in a way encourages the students’ misconduct and leads to their ethical degradation.
Secondly, the multiple-choice test is often like a gambling. Doing well in such an exam is in some way becoming a matter of chance. According to the law of probability, if a question has four choices, then the probability of the right answer will be as high as 25%. Even is a person, absolutely ignorant of knowledge of that subject, take part in the multiple-choice test, he will have 25% chances of getting the right answer, just by guess. Because of this characteristic, some students’ attitude and attention to study may be quite misled and their capability and flexibility may be weakened. For example, we used to answer the multiple-choice tests at middle schools. When we come to college and face a problem of answering various questions in more details by writing or by speaking, we are at a loss, not to mention our difficulty in writing English
compositions.
Thirdly, the multiple-choice test fails to evaluate the students’ abilities thoroughly, especially their potential abilities. Owing to the nature of such a test form, the four letters on the answer sheet cannot reveal the thought process of the students who take the exams. We all know that thought process is the reflection of one’s abilities and potentials in many different ways, and that process is often much more important than the test results themselves in telling the real abilities of the students. Therefore, the answers chosen on the answer sheet do not truly correspond to the students’ practical abilities.
Fourthly, such a method of testing can seriously affect the students’ way of studying. Since the multiple-choice test demands no writing, students tend to develop a very passive way of receiving knowledge and responding to the questions related to the knowledge, and therefore neglect the abilities of actively and creatively using what they have learned. This is especially harmful for language study that requires constant actual practice. It may lower the students’ interest and intelligence in their studies and lead to the failure of our educational purposes. After all, how can we meet the complex challenge of modern society with simple “A. B. C. D.” ?
From the above cases of evidence and analysis, it is clear that the multiple-choice test should not dominate the examinations of our academic courses. It may be used partially for some specific purposes for some courses, but extensive use of the multiple-choice test at various levels of our educational institutions will surely impoverish the quality of our education and of our students.
Is English Writing Necessary for English Majors?
English writing is generally the most difficult one in the language competence required for the students majoring in English, considering the great pains student writers take and the slight progress they make in their practice. Most of the beginners think there is no need to practice writing English compositions since their writing skills in Chinese are quite sufficient, and English writing is after all not quite practical for their future work. However, English writing, as a very important part of students’ general language competence and as a means of expressing oneself and
is necessary
and essential for English majors.
1) The difficulty of of spreading knowledge and information,
English writing baffles (=confuses)
some students so much that they turn to their Chinese skills for help. That is natural. In fact, their Chinese writing skills do help their English writing, especially in generating and organizing ideas and details. Meanwhile, Chinese writing is different from English writing in sentence structure and paragraph organizations and their differences in expressions are certainly even bigger. Simply translating Chinese word for word into English cannot make good English writing. Other students hold a wrong view of English learning. They think to learn English is just to memorize a large vocabulary, to master the grammar and to speak fluent English. Once they are proficient in those areas of English, they can naturally handle English writing well. To correct such a one-sided view, one thing must be kept in mind, that is, spoken English is not equal to written English. Oral speech is often rather loose and flexible without
precise and proper arrangement. Oral English uses simple everyday
language while written English comprises complicated words and
sentence structures. Therefore, written English is more demanding,
and it requires intentional and intensive practice. English writing
course can serve this purpose.
The students’
laziness in observing and thinking partly accounts for their reluctance to practice writing. Writing sharpens and improves thinking. English writing can help students develop the habit and ability of thinking in English and become generally more competent in English. Composition topics can be varied yet close to life. If students have a good habit of observing life and thinking constantly, they won’t bump into (=accidentally meet) topics with empty heads. Keen observation and deep thoughts are necessary for good English writing, and they are also signs for well-educated people.
Writing can also
strengthen students’
abilities in comprehension and oral English. Writing is creative work. After brainstorming, various ideas and pictures may pop into their minds and some beautiful sentences may be written down on a piece of paper, which will last long in their memory. Their written English skills may help to polish and beautify their spoken English and make their oral expression precise and elegant. Writing involves lots of reading. When reading others’ writing, they will be sensitive to various styles and that will quicken their reading speed and comprehension.
Furthermore,
English writing is in fact a most practical tool in students’ future career. It will be used in writing telexes, business letters, research papers and public speeches. Every kind of writing has its special style, which needs a careful study and strenuous practice. yet all those are based on essential skills in English writing that will be covered in an English writing course.
Finally, the required competence for
English majors differs from other English learners. English majors are not limited to the command of any particular sphere of the English language, but they must have all-round competence in terms of listening and reading comprehension, spoken abilities and writing skills in English, so that they can adopt themselves to various situations in their future work.
No one is born capable of everything. Hard work is the premise of success. To be able to use English freely, we do not only have to read a lot, speak
a lot, but also write a lot. English writing practice consolidates
(=strengthen)students’ overall English competence and enables them to express their ideas and feelings in a more precise, graceful and permanent form.