英语专业八级语言学总结
一、语言和语言学
1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language
任意性 arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系
二重性 duality 指语言由两层结构组成
创造性 creativity 指语言可以被创造
移位性 displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点
2、语言的功能（不是很重要）
信息功能 informative
人际功能 interpersonal
施为功能 performative
感情功能 emotive function
寒暄功能 phatic communication
娱乐功能 recreational function
元语言功能 metalingual function
3、语言学主要分支
语音学 phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音
音位学 phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列
形态学 morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则
句法学 syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则
语义学 semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义
语用学 pragmatics 在语境中研究意义
4、宏观语言学 macrolingustics
心理语言学 psycholinguistics 社会语言学 sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学 computational linguistics
5 语言学中的重要区别
规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的
描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的
共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言
历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律
语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体
言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言
语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)
能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备
运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用
二、语音学
1、语音学分支
发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生
声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性
听觉语音学 auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知
2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的
三、音位学
1、最小对立体minimal pairs
2、音位 phoneme
3 音位变体 allophones
4 互补分布 complementary distribution
5 自由变体 free variation
6 区别特征 distinctive features
7 超音段特征 suprasegmental feature
音节 syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation
四 形态学
1 词的构成
语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morpheme
Root 词根 词缀affix 词干stem
屈折词汇和派生词汇 inflectional affix and derivational affix
2 特有的词汇变化lexical change proper
新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation
首字母缩写词 acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例：editor—edit
类推构词analogiacal creation 例：work-worked,,slay-slayed
外来词 borrowing
五 句法学
1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect
一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment
2 结构主义学派the structure approach
组合关系 syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起
聚合关系 paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起
结构和成分 construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分)
3 直接成分分析法 immediate constitutional analysis
指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分
4 向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions
向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例an old man ,中心为man
离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。例：on the shelf
5 生成学派the generative approach
深层结构deep structure指机构关系中的潜在层面underlying level
表层结构surface structure指结构形成的最后结果阶段final stage
6 功能学派the functional approach
主位与述位 theme and rheme
主位：谈话中已知的信息,说话者从它谈起known，
述位：与说话者内容有关的内容what the speaker states about
7 交际力communicative and dynamism简称CD
指句子成分对交际发展所作的贡献的程度
六、语义学
1 利奇的意义七分法Leech and his 7 types of meaning
概念意义conceptual meaning 字面意义
内涵意义connotative meaning 实际交往过程中所指的事物
社会意义
情感意义 affective meaning
反射意义 reflective meaning 由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义
搭配意义 collocative meaning
主位意义 thematic meaning 通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义
2 指称论 referential theory
指将词的意义和他所指的食物联系起来的意义理论
3 语义三角semantic triangle 奥格登和理查兹提出
Symbol或form 指语言要素（如词和语素），the linguistic elements
能指thought指概念concept
所指reference 指经验世界中的物体the object in the word of experience
涵义sense语言形式的意义
4 主要涵义关系
○同义关系synonymy
地域同义词dialectal synonymy
风格同义词 stylistic synonyms
感情同义词 synonymys that differ in connotation意义相同，但内涵不同，有褒有贬
○反义关系antonymy
等级反义关系gradable antonymy 例cool-warm ;hot-cold
互补反义关系 complementary antonymy,肯定A就否定B，否定B 就肯定A，例dead-alive
反向反义关系converse antonymy .reversal of a relationship between 2 entities.例 husband-wife; teacher-student
○上下义关系hyponymy 意义包含关系。例：花－水仙、玫瑰、百合
补充：同音同形异义关系homonymy
一词多义 polysemy
七、语用学
1 言语行为理论speech act theory奥斯汀提出John Langshaw Austin
认为人在说话的同时也在进行一定的行为动作
○施为句和叙事句performative and constative
施为句：实施某种行为。
叙事句：描述说话人在说话时所作的动作。
○行事行为理论a theory of the illocutionary act
言内行为：locutionnary act表述字面意思
言外行为：illoutionary act 因为言语本身的习惯力量随之产生的其他一些行为
言后行为：perlocutionnary act 话语在听者身上产生的效果
2 会话含义理论 the theory of conversational implicature
格赖斯提出Herbert Paul Grice
○合作原则:说话人和听话人为达一定的交际目的，都有一种默契，一种都遵循的原则
○ 四个准则four categories of maxims
数量、质量、关系、方式(manner)准则
3 后格赖斯时期的发展
○关联理论：relevance theory:交际应被看做一种表明自身说话意图的行为every act of ostensive(直接表明的) communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance
○数量关系和关系原则the Q-and R-principles
由霍恩Laurence Horn 提出
八 现代语言学理论和流派
1 索绪尔Saussure瑞士语言学家，“现代语言学之父”或者“使语言学科走向现代的大师”
2 布拉格学派Prague School
贡献:共时语言学研究，从“功能”角度看待语言，强调语言的系统性，把语言看做一种功能
突出贡献：语音学说，及其划分语音学和音位学
突出：Trubetzkoy特鲁别茨柯依：提出语音学属于言语，音位学属于语言，提出音位概念
4 伦敦学派 the Lundon School:系统语言学和功能语言学
创始人：弗斯Firth.人物：弗斯受马林诺夫斯基影响。韩礼德为新弗斯派领袖三人都强调语言环境和语言系统的重要性
韩礼德和系统功能语法：由系统语法和功能语法构成。把实际使用的语言现象作为研究对象
5 美国结构主义American Structuralism
共时语言学分支，由博厄斯提出F.Bos.
○撒皮尔-沃尔夫假说Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
语言相对论-语言决定论
○布隆菲尔德Bloomfield《语言论》－20世纪被大西洋两岸同时奉为科学的方法论典范和语言学领域的杰出代表。描述语言学的代表人物
6 转换生成语法transformational–generative grammar
乔姆斯基提出Chomsky.
认为语言是某种天赋，语言习得机制Language Acquisition device
第二篇：20xx年英语专业八级改错技巧总结,争取改对8个!
1.短语搭配错误 （大部分为介词错误）
carry/get with things –> carry/get on with things
to let alone –> let alone
in return to –> in return for
the need of –> the need for
substitute A with B –> substitute A for B
account 70% --> account for 70%
under the grounds of/that –> on the grounds of/that
attitude on life –> attitude towards/to life
in a quick speed –> at a quick speed
with many respects –> in many respects
at the face of –> in the face(s) of
considerations to… –> considerations for…
become victims of … --> become victims to …
ride in a train –> ride on a train
the problems with the government –> the problems for the government
resistive against –> resistive to
resistance of –> resistance to
embark sth –> embark on sth
with the belief that –> in the belief that
at advance of sth –> in advance of sth
interpret… to –> interpret… as
in line to –> in line with
to varing degrees –> in varing degrees
take pride of –> take pride in
leap out to me –> leap out at me
inject them lethal strains –> inject them with lethal strains
charge him with the same price –> charge him the same price
imbalance of A and B –> imbalance between A and B
shortage of protein with them –> shartage of protein among them
fortify sb for sth –> fortify sb against sth (加强…以抵御…)
shed light to sth –> shed light on sth
in proportion with –> in proportion to
pay for it with dollars –> pay for it in dollars
be in liberty to –> be at liberty to
begin at doing –> begin with doing
be contrasted to –> be contrasted with
commit an offence to –> commit an offence against
modern time –> modern times
ability of (doing) sth –> ability in (doing) sth
defend sth against –> defend sth from
at the first place –> in the first place
pay money in doing –> pay money for doing
take to do –> take to doing (“求助于，开始”，to为介词)
yearn to –> yearn for
at average –> on average
identify oneself to –> identify oneself with
be successful on doing –> be successful at/in doing
get one’s teeth on –> get one’s teeth into(埋头做，认真做)
the action of formation –> the action of forming (of后应接动名词而非名词)
approach to do … –> approach to doing …
one contributor of –> one contributor to
consumers demand of luxury goods –> consumers demand for luxury goods
on one’s 30s –> in one’s 30s
balk to –> balk at (回避，绕过)
differ A from B –> distinguish A from B
suit to sb/sth –> suit for sb/sth
vary by – vary with
emphasis of – emphasis on
2.易混词错误
(1)形近异义词
imaginative – imaginary
adapt – adopt
confirm – conform
former – formal
diary – dairy
personal – personnel
beside – besides
principal – principle
intelligent – intelligible
conscious – conscientious
stationary – stationery
considerate – considerable
affect(影响) – effect(致使、达成)
contact – contract
moral – morale
industrious – industrial
desert – dessert
require – acquire – inquire
presence – presentation
sensible – sensitive
transformation – transmission
value – evaluate
tense – tension
anything – something
cooker – cook
complexity(复杂性) – complex(合成体)
insurance – assurance
provide(提供) – provided/providing(假设，如果)
perceive – conceive
effective(有效的) – affective(受…影响的，由…引起的)
(2)形近(形异)近义词
latter – later
late(迟的，已故的) – latest(最晚的，最新的)
farther(距离更远) – further(程度更进一步)
healthy(健康的) – healthful(有益健康的)
effective – efficient
continual(连续的) – continuous(持续不断的)
respectable – respectful
historic – historical
rise – arise – raise – arouse
sure – insure – ensure – assure
in return to – in response to
opposite – opposition
producing – productive
lonely – alone
across – cross
impressed -- impressive
permit(n.通行证) – permission
relating – related
memorizing – memorable
normal(n.常态,通常标准,一般水平) – norm(规范,行为标准)
favorite – favorable
acceptability – acceptance
economical – economic
few – little
a few – few
little – a little
invent – discover
before – ago
another – other
agent(代理人) – agency(代理机构)
reward(回馈) – award(奖赏)
special – specific
(3)兼有两种形式的副词
firstly – first (firstly用于列举条目或者表示顺序，first表示时间上“第一次、首次”)
hardly(几乎不) – hard(努力地)
sure – surely
late – lately
clear(完全地、径直地) – clearly(显然、清楚地)
high(高度高地) – highly(程度高地、非常)
close(接近地、紧密地) – closely(紧密地、严密地)
most(最) – most(大部分)
(4)反义词
with – without
possible – impossible
subjective – objective
import – export
better – worse
employee – employer
employment – unemployment
modifiable – unmodifiable
natural – unnatural
discernable – indiscernable
lent – borrowed
exclusive – inclusive
independency – dependency
willing – unwilling
nothing more than – nothing less than
agree – disagree
rarely – frequently / often
specific – general
less – more (still more– still less)
most – least
known – unknown
respective – irrespective (irrespective of表示“不管…”)
majority – minority
result in – result from
fortunately -- unfortunately
powerful – powerless
easiness – uneasiness
professional – amateur
aware – unaware
include – exclude
(5) 名词单复数异义
moral – morals(作名词时用复数形式,表示“道德、伦理”)
collection(不可数名词表示“各种因素集合体”) – collections(可数名词表示“收藏品”)
manner(方法,方式) – manners(礼仪,礼节)
saving – savings(复数表示“存款”)
specie(硬币) – species(种类)（species只有单数）
mean(n.平均值) – means(方法)
(6) 易混短语
live with(同…一起生活,忍受) – live by(靠…过活)
go about (doing) sth(开始做某事,四处走动,流传,经常从事于) – go around(四处走动,绕道走)
tend to – intend to
in next week(以当下时间为基准点) – in the next week(以过去的时间为基准点)
spend… in doing sth – spend… on sth
die of(内部) – die from(外部)
rather than – other than
have sb do sth – have sth done
take on(从事，开始对付，呈现) – go on(继续)
take place – take the place of
consist in(在于) – consist of(包括)
in all(总共) – after all(毕竟)
in return(作为报答) – in turn(反过来，轮流)
one reason for +短语 – one reason why +句子
bring out(使显露，使显现) – bring up(教育，培养，提出，(船)抵达目的地)
be worth doing – be worthwhile to do
react to(对…作出反应) – react with(以…作出反应)
apply… to(将…应用于) – apply for(请求，申请)
3.逻辑关系错误（连词使用错误）
therefore – nevertheless/however (大部分therefore都要改为however,反之亦然)
and – but / while
or – and
but – because
moreover – however
after – before
since – although
there is no…– there is also…
that – if
from now on – from then on
all – none
besides – yet
if – unless
besides – except
therefore – because
so – because
so does he… – neither/nor does he…
that’s why +结果 – that’s because +原因
as if – even if
whether – if
4.代词错误（一致错误）
their – its
that – those (需要特别注意)
which – that (有些情况下关系代词只能用that)
which – what
it – itself (主宾相同，宾语用反身代词)
that/this – it (只有it可作形式主语)
his – one’s (泛指时用one)
you – yourself
it – they
this – such
XX is less sophisticated than what they are today – XX is less sophisticated than they are today
5.冠词错误
(1)定冠词多余
on the either side –> on either side
in the Europe –> inEurope
in the winter –> in winter (季节前不加定冠词)
Kaufman, the/an author of a recent book – Kaufman, author of a recent book(同位语间完全对等关系，不必使用冠词)
take the issue –> take issue(对…持异议，不同意)
(2)定冠词缺漏
among most –> among the most
one of first –> one of the first
atmosphere –> the atmosphere(表示独一无二的事物（另外还有如：)the Equator, the Outerspace）
between us and rest –> between us and the rest
in minority –> in the minority
around floor –> around the floor
piano –> the piano (西洋乐器的前面要有定冠词)
English language –> the English language
at heart of –> at the heart of
world –> the world(表示“地球”这种独一无二的事物要加定冠词)
in long run –> in the long run
(3)定冠词与不定冠词之间的误用
illustrate the further difference –> illustrate a further difference (diference第一次提及)
注意以下短语的区别
in church – in the church
at college – at the college
in court – in the court
in hospital – in the hospital
in office – in the office
in prison – in the prison
at sea – at the sea
in school – in the school
at table – at the table
6.形容词与副词使用错误
have been currently –> current
be well equipped as –> be as well equipped as
heavy industrialized –> heavily-industrialized
spread colossal –> spread colossally
similar strong –> similarly strong
keep the number constantly at X a year –> keep number constant at X a year
feel hopeless thwarted –> feel hopelessly thwarted
comparative high proportion –> comparatively high proportion
(quakes) start deeply in the earth –> start deep in the earth
in the passed 5 years –> in the past 5 years
culture embedded attitudes –> culturally embedded attitudes
as much as –> as often as
from one meter afar –> from one meter away
increasing –> increasingly
simple –> simply
pure –> purely
much –> many
many –> more
large –> larger
early –> earlier
7.成分残缺或多余(单复数错误)
a world which I could get… –> a world in which I could get…
shows –> that shows (先行词在定语从句中作主语，关系代词不可省略)
take for granted that –> take it for grated that
1980 –1980s
one of the most glaring form –> one of the mist glaring forms
their jobs engage in their interest –> their jobs engage their interest (engage单独使用表示“占用（某人时间），吸引（某人注意力）”)
complain about sth –> complain sth
work sth –> work out sth
believe in –believe (believe单独使用表示一般的“相信”，believe in表示“信任某人，信仰…”)
point sth –> point out sth
20 percents –> 20 percent
eyes contact –> eye contact
seven – seventh
the process which it function –> the process by which it function
communication service –> communications service (通信服务、通讯服务)
average incomes –> average income (income为不可数名词)
the like of –> the likes of(诸如此类的)
be referred to XX –> be referred to as XX
be viewed as work of are –> be viewed as a work of art(work作为“作品”讲时，为可数名词)
8.时态或语态错误
went – go
agreeing – agreed
consisted – consisting
bored – boring
favoring – favored
if she was –> if she were(非真实条件句)
involves – involving
will – would (虚拟语气中)
delaying – delayed (已完成概念或者被动概念)
the promise of improving quality of life –> the promise of improved quality of life (已完成概念或者被动概念)
assure – assures (第三人称单数)
have – has (要看清句子真正的主语)
developing – developed
confronting – confronted
the least understanding –> the least understood
what the have told – what they have been told
if circumstances become favorable – if circumstances should become favorable
以上近300个典型例子基本涵盖了所有容易出现的错误，我认为一开始就去记这些例子的效果并不理想，最适宜的方法是先做一定数量的改错练习，然后再看上边的总结以及例子，过后再去做题，就能够掌握改错的一些规律，识别出更多的错误并能将其改正，形成自己的做题方法。另外，要将语法词汇错误和语篇错误区别开来，语法词汇掌握较好，并不代表改错能做好，还要在文章理解上下功夫（有的改错文章其实比较难），应先通读全文，然后再一行一行地去识别错误所在，这样一些很隐蔽的语篇错误就能显现出来。不要一上来就开始找错误，边找错边读文章，这样的结果往往是，一些词汇错误都能找到，但做完后不知所云，好多语篇错误也没有看出来。