sat写作最重要的就是大家在备考中总结各种各样的作文范文或者SAT写作例子。其中SAT写作题目也很重要。小编这里为大家介绍的是“慢工出细活”之SAT写作例子积累，希望能够帮助大家更好地备考SAT写作考试。

SAT写作的评分标准也体现了美国这个教育发达的大国的一些审美观，官方指南的第一篇文章是一个学生参加AP考试的例子，讲的核心是完美主义，论述重点是两方人对此问题的不同看法，我认为这是动力，老师和同学认为完美主义让我精神过度紧张。这个例子很好的诠释了assignment, 即is there always another explanation or point of view。

每次都是第一节课给同学们展示这个例子，看的时候也确实有很多惊叹的声音出现。当然大家谈到的核心问题还是美国人很奇怪，怎么能用一个个人例子就来论证全文呢，毕竟这在中国同学看来是不可思议的。中国同学的文章中总是充斥着大量的名人名言，大段的排比等等很炫的一些手段，可以凸显自己信手拈来的一股豪气。但是这些东西到了美国人这边就纯粹是扯淡了，没有实际意义的东西。

简单来说当你说I feel tired的时候，老美会觉得很空洞，但如果你写的是dark circles under my eyes 那么它们就觉得很cute，很生动。当你写到我的小外甥很fat的时候，如果能换成couch potato, 那么效果又会不一样。总之他们讲究的是一种真诚的实在的东西，注重细节，注重思想的碰撞，而不是大量堆砌诗词歌赋等语言形式。 接下来一点感悟就是对于SAT写作例子的积累。我觉得对于中国同学而言去背上个几十个例子是不难的，毕竟中国人背东西还是向来有一套的，但是作文毕竟不是单词，讲究的是一种运用的能力。所以我建议同学们可以去学会搜集资料，挑选资料然后整合资料。具体讲来就是学会搜集一些自己很感兴趣的人或者是事件的相关资料，比如你对苏格拉底很感兴趣就去维基百科上阅读相关资料，然后动手去把这个人的简单传记写出来，越详细越好。最佳状态就是你对这个人非常非常了解，然后不论我说什么题目，你都能用这个人物的事例当中的某个部分来证明主题。接下来剩下的工作就是抽取特定文章需要的细节组装整合了。我觉得这个过程还是比较有效率的，一来是因为同学们是在写一些自己感兴趣的人或事物，二来是因为同学们发现这样的做法也确实很有效。总结SAT写作题目也是很有必要的。

所以我们再回头来看这个SAT考试，我的理解是这是一个很看重各位对某个事件或某个人的了解程度的，也就是他需要你一旦今天用越南战争做例子来论证sth.

unsuccessful can turn into something good，那么就得拿出硬碰硬的细节来告诉我们到底有多么不成功，何时派兵，多少人，死伤多少人，多么悲剧，之后营造好这个抽象概念，你也得拿出细节比如美国军队学到了什么，美国老百姓又获得了什么，而不要用那些模棱两可的东西来忽悠老师，比如In this disaster of the mankind, millions and millions of people died, husbands and wives were forced to separate forever, children were deprived the rights to even have a family，这样的语句放到二战

http://bailiedu.com

中也能成立，那么你的文章就没有insightfully and deeply develop your example, 充其量只是蜻蜓点了一下水。

所以说，SAT写作例子的积累与展示才是说明问题的关键，这些是美国招生官员在进行SAT写作评分时更加看重的，华丽的遣词造句是不如一个简单具体的例子的。

第二篇：sat写作例子收集

满分网（SAT备考资料） 思想家

孔子(前551—前479)

孔子，名丘，字仲尼。鲁国陬邑(今山东曲阜东南)人。先世是宋国贵族，避难迁鲁。他出生

时，家世已经没落。年轻时做过季孙氏的委吏(管仓库)和乘田(管繁殖牲口)等。三十多岁到

齐国，几年没有得到齐君的重用，又回到鲁国，聚徒讲学。五十多岁时，由鲁国中都宰(都

城行政长官)升任司寇(掌管刑狱、纠察等事)。后又曾周游宋、卫、蔡、齐、楚等国。晚年在

鲁国编订古代文化典籍《诗》《尚书》《春秋》等，教授门徒。孔子的弟子曾将他的谈话和他

与门徒的问答，辑成《论语》一书，这是研究孔子思想的主要资料。

Confucius(circa 551-479 BC)

One of the most famous people in ancient China was a wise philosopher named Confucius. He

sometimes went by the names Kong Zi though he was born - Kong Qiu - styled Zhong Ni. He was

born in the village of Zou in the country of Lu.

This Chinese man was a well-known leader in philosophy and he also made many wise phrases

and theories about the law, life, and the government. Confucius is famous for his philosophy

because he made many wise sayings in ancient China that helped many people learn about nature,

the world, and the human behavior. He also helped the government and the emperor by teaching

them lessons on how the emperor should rule his kingdom successfully.

Confucius was born in a poor family in the year 551 B.C., and he was born in the state of Lu. His

original name was K'ung Ch'iu. His father, commander of a district in Lu, died three years after

Confucius was born, leaving the family in poverty; but Confucius nevertheless received a fine

education. He was married at the age of 19 and had one son and two daughters.

He worked as a keeper of a market. Then he was a farm worker who took care of parks and farm

animals. When he was 20, he worked for the governor of his district.

Key words: philosophy poor childhood ancient China

亚里士多德（公元前384-322 ）

元前384年，亚里士多德生于富拉基亚的斯塔基尔希腊移民区。他的父亲是马其顿国王腓力

二世的宫廷侍医 ，所以他的家庭应该属于奴隶主阶级中的中产阶层。亚里士多德于公元前

367年迁居到雅典，曾经学过医学，还在雅典柏拉图学院学习过很多年，是柏拉图学院的积

极参加者。

从十八岁到三十八岁在亚里士多德雅典跟柏拉图学习哲学。这二十年对亚里士多德来说是个

很重要的阶段，这一时期的学习和生活对他一生产生了决定性的影响。苏格拉底是柏拉图的

老师，亚里士多德又受教于柏拉图，这三代师徒都是哲学史上赫赫有名的人物。

在雅典的柏拉图学园中，亚里士多德表现的很出色，柏拉图称他是“学园之灵”。但亚里士多

德不是一个只崇拜权威，在学术上唯唯诺诺而没有自己的想法的人。他同大谈玄理的老师不

同，他努力的收集各种图书资料，勤奋钻研，甚至为自己建立了一个图书室。在学院期间，

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满分网（SAT备考资料） 亚里士多德就在思想上跟老师有了分歧。他曾经隐喻的说过，智慧不会随柏拉图一起死亡。

当柏拉图到了晚年，他们师生间的分歧更大了，经常发生争吵。公元前347年，柏拉图去世

后，亚里士多德在雅典又继续呆了两年，此后他开始游历各地。公元前343年，他受马其顿

国王腓力二世的聘请，担任起太子亚历山大的老师。当时，亚历山大十三岁，亚里士多德四

十二岁。

亚里士多德是世界古代史上最伟大的哲学家、科学家和教育家。他创立了形式逻辑学，丰富

和发展了哲学的各个分支学科，对科学做出了巨大的贡献。

Aristotle

Aristotle (384-322 bc), Greek philosopher and scientist, who shares with Plato and Socrates the

distinction of being the most famous of ancient philosophers. He was born at Stagira, in

Macedonia, the son of a physician to the royal court. At the age of 17, he went to Athens to study

at Plato's Academy. He remained there for about 20 years, as a student and then as a teacher.

When Plato died in 347 bc, Aristotle moved to Assos, a city in Asia Minor, where a friend of his,

Hermias, was ruler. There he counseled Hermias and married his niece and adopted daughter,

Pythias. After Hermias was captured and executed by the Persians in 345 bc, Aristotle went to

Pella, the Macedonian capital, where he became the tutor of the king's young son Alexander, later

known as Alexander the Great. In 335, when Alexander became king, Aristotle returned to Athens

and established his own school, the Lyceum. Because much of the discussion in his school took

place while teachers and students were walking about the Lyceum grounds, Aristotle's school

came to be known as the Peripatetic (“walking” or “strolling”) school. Upon the death of

Alexander in 323 bc, strong anti-Macedonian feeling developed in Athens, and Aristotle retired to

a family estate in Euboea (?vvoia). He died there the following year.

Perhaps because of the influence of his father's medical profession, Aristotle's philosophy laid its

principal stress on biology, in contrast to Plato's emphasis on mathematics. Aristotle regarded the

world as made up of individuals (substances) occurring in fixed natural kinds (species). Each

individual has its built-in specific pattern of development and grows toward proper self-realization

as a specimen of its type. Growth, purpose, and direction are thus built into nature. Although

science studies general kinds, according to Aristotle, these kinds find their existence in particular

individuals. Science and philosophy must therefore balance, not simply choose between, the

claims of empiricism (observation and sense experience) and formalism (rational deduction).

One of the most distinctive of Aristotle's philosophic contributions was a new notion of causality.

Each thing or event, he thought, has more than one “reason” that helps to explain what, why, and

where it is. Earlier Greek thinkers had tended to assume that only one sort of cause can be really

explanatory; Aristotle proposed four. (The word Aristotle uses, aition,”a responsible, explanatory

factor” is not synonymous with the word cause in its modern sense.)

Key words: ancient Greek philosopher scientist

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满分网（SAT备考资料） 柏拉图

柏拉图（P1ato，公元前427—前347年）出身于雅典一个名门贵族家庭，自幼受到良好的教

育，20岁时师从苏格拉底研究哲学，苏格拉底死后，柏拉图曾离开雅典在外游历，12年后

回到雅典，创立了阿加德米学园，在那里讲学直到逝世为止。“柏拉图是古典时代著作丰富

而作品似乎完整齐全留传下来的唯一作家。”在他留给后人的36篇对话录中，《理想国》和

《法律篇》较集中地反映了他的教育学说，围绕培养“哲学王”的教育问题，他构思了一个庞

大的教育体系。柏拉图在物质世界以外寻求事物的本原，建立了以理念论为核心的客观唯心

主义哲学体系。理念论的基本内容是将理性世界和感觉世界对立起来，认为感性的具体事物

不是真实的存在，在感觉世界之外还有一个永恒不变的、独立的、真实存在的理念世界。

Plato

Plato (428?-347 bc), Greek philosopher, one of the most creative and influential thinkers in

Western philosophy. He was born to an aristocratic family in Athens. His father, Ariston, was

believed to have descended from the early kings of Athens. Perictione, his mother, was distantly

related to the 6th-century bc lawmaker Solon. When Plato was a child, his father died, and his

mother married Pyrilampes, who was an associate of the statesman Pericles.

As a young man Plato had political ambitions, but he became disillusioned by the political

leadership in Athens. He eventually became a disciple of Socrates, accepting his basic philosophy

and dialectical style of debate: the pursuit of truth through questions, answers, and additional

questions. Plato witnessed the death of Socrates at the hands of the Athenian democracy in 399 bc.

Perhaps fearing for his own safety, he left Athens temporarily and traveled to Italy, Sicily, and

Egypt.

In 387 Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the institution often described as the first European

university. It provided a comprehensive curriculum, including such subjects as astronomy, biology,

mathematics, political theory, and philosophy. Aristotle was the Academy’s most prominent

student.

Plato’s theory of Forms and his theory of knowledge are so interrelated that they must be

discussed together. Influenced by Socrates, Plato was convinced that knowledge is attainable. He

was also convinced of two essential characteristics of knowledge. First, knowledge must be

certain and infallible. Second, knowledge must have as its object that which is genuinely real as

contrasted with that which is an appearance only. Because that which is fully real must, for Plato,

be fixed, permanent, and unchanging, he identified the real with the ideal realm of being as

opposed to the physical world of becoming. One consequence of this view was Plato’s rejection of

empiricism, the claim that knowledge is derived from sense experience. He thought that

propositions derived from sense experience have, at most, a degree of probability. They are not

certain. Furthermore, the objects of sense experience are changeable phenomena of the physical

world. Hence, objects of sense experience are not proper objects of knowledge.

Key words: Greek philosopher great tutor

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满分网（SAT备考资料） 苏格拉底

苏格拉底（前469年—前399年）是著名的古希腊哲学家。与他的学生之一是柏拉图及柏拉

图的学生亚里士多德并称“希腊三贤”。 出生于伯里克利统治的雅典黄金时期，死于雅典的

败落时期。（伯罗奔尼撒战争结束后的三十人僭主集团倒台后的时期)。出身贫寒，父亲是一

名雕刻师，母亲为助产士。苏格拉底是一位个性鲜明，被人褒贬不一而充满传奇色彩的历史

人物。 苏格拉底是柏拉图的老师，他一生未曾著述，其言论和思想多见于柏拉图和色诺芬

的著作如《苏格拉底言行回忆录》。苏格拉底最后因触犯了当时权贵的利益而被冠以腐蚀青

年思想之名被迫饮毒堇汁而死。 他长期靠教育为业，苏格拉底的教学方式独特，常常用启

发、辩论的方式来进行教育。 苏格拉底是柏拉图哲学路线的创始者。苏格拉底重视伦理学，

是古希腊第一个提出要用理性和思维去寻找普遍道德的人，他是道德哲学的创始人，他强调

道德是由理性指导的，所以“美德就是知识”，认为善出于知，恶出于无知。 在欧洲哲学史

上最早提出唯心主义的目的论，认为一切都是神所创造与安排的，体现了神的智慧与目的。

提出了“自知自己无知”的命题，认为只有放弃对自然界的求索（因为那时神的领域），承认

自己无知的人才是聪明人。最有知识的是神，知识最终从神而来，真正的知是服从神。 在

逻辑学方面，亚里士多德认为苏格拉底提出归纳论证，从具体实事中找出确定的论点，并注

意一般定义的方法，对概念做出精确的说明。苏格拉底的哲学思想主要认为是非有标准。传

说苏格拉底的家庭生活不幸，其妻子是个泼妇。

Socrates

Socrates (469-399bc), Greek philosopher, profoundly affected Western philosophy through his

influence on Plato. Born in Athens, the son of Sophroniscus, a sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife,

he received the regular elementary education in literature, music, and gymnastics. Later he

familiarized himself with the rhetoric and dialectics of the Sophists, the speculations of the Ionian

philosophers, and the general culture of Periclean Athens. Initially, Socrates followed the craft of

his father; according to a former tradition, he executed a statue group of the three Graces, which

stood at the entrance to the Acropolis until the 2nd century ad. In the Peloponnesian War with

Sparta he served as an infantryman with conspicuous bravery at the battles of Potidaea in 432-430

bc, Delium in 424 bc, and Amphipolis in 422 bc. Socrates believed in the superiority of argument

over writing and therefore spent the greater part of his mature life in the marketplace and public

places of Athens, engaging in dialogue and argument with anyone who would listen or who would

submit to interrogation. Socrates was reportedly unattractive in appearance and short of stature but

was also extremely hardy and self-controlled. He enjoyed life immensely and achieved social

popularity because of his ready wit and a keen sense of humor that was completely devoid of

satire or cynicism.

Socrates' contribution to philosophy was essentially ethical in character. Belief in a purely

objective understanding of such concepts as justice, love, and virtue, and the self-knowledge that

he inculcated, were the basis of his teachings. He believed that all vice is the result of ignorance,

and that no person is willingly bad; correspondingly, virtue is knowledge, and those who know the

right will act rightly. His logic placed particular emphasis on rational argument and the quest for

general definitions, as evidenced in the writings of his younger contemporary and pupil, Plato, and

of Plato's pupil, Aristotle. Through the writings of these philosophers, Socrates profoundly

affected the entire subsequent course of Western speculative thought.

Key words: Greek philosopher

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满分网（SAT备考资料） 康德

伊曼纽·康德（1724—1804）被许多人认为是现代最伟大的哲学家。康德的生平听上去是对

他这位象牙塔里的知识分子一生的戏称。他出生在普鲁士的柯尼希斯伯格，16岁的时候进

入大学，在这里教书直到73岁，除了在这个城市40英里的范围内走动外，一生从未出过远

门。他不到5英尺高，胸部凹陷，过着单身汉的生活，一生不变，据说这是为了保存他那脆

弱的健康状况。每天早晨5点由男仆将他唤醒，花两个小时进行学习，还有两个小时讲课，

写作到下午一点，然后再去一家餐馆进餐。下午3点半，他准时散步一个小时，不管天气如

何。他在菩提树下的一条小路上散步，只用鼻子呼吸（他认为在户外张开嘴是不利于健康的），

而且这时候不跟任何人说话。（他非常守时，邻居们都根据他每天散步的情况对表，有一天

他没有准时来散步，邻居们都非常担心。这天他一直在读卢梭的《爱弥儿》，看得太入神了，

以至于忘了自己。）一天余下的时间里，他会花在读书上面，并准备第二天的讲课。约在晚

上9-10点间睡觉。

康德的写作和讲课涉及广泛的范围：伦理学、神学、宇宙哲学、美学、逻辑学和知识理论。

他在政治和神学上都属于自由主义者，他同情法国革命，直到恐怖统治为止，他相信民主，

热爱自由。他是莱布尼兹的弟子，直到中年他读了休谟然后说，“从教条主义的沉睡中醒了

过来”，并得到启发，发展了一套比莱布尼兹详细得多的知识理论。

Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), German philosopher, considered by many the most influential

thinker of modern times. Born in K?nigsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia), April 22, 1724, Kant

received his education at the Collegium Fredericianum and the University of K?nigsberg. At the

college he studied chiefly the classics, and at the university he studied physics and mathematics.

After his father died, he was compelled to halt his university career and earn his living as a private

tutor. In 1755, aided by a friend, he resumed his studies and obtained his doctorate. Thereafter, for

15 years he taught at the university, lecturing first on science and mathematics, but gradually

enlarging his field of concentration to cover almost all branches of philosophy.

Although Kant's lectures and works written during this period established his reputation as an

original philosopher, he did not receive a chair at the university until 1770, when he was made

professor of logic and metaphysics. For the next 27 years he continued to teach and attracted large

numbers of students to K?nigsberg. Kant's unorthodox religious teachings, which were based on

rationalism rather than revelation, brought him into conflict with the government of Prussia, and in

1792 he was forbidden by Frederick William II, king of Prussia, to teach or write on religious

subjects. Kant obeyed this order for five years until the death of the king and then felt released

from his obligation. In 1798, the year following his retirement from the university, he published a

summary of his religious views. He died February 12, 1804.

The keystone of Kant's philosophy, sometimes called critical philosophy, is contained in his

Critique of Pure Reason (1781), in which he examined the bases of human knowledge and created

an individual epistemology. Like earlier philosophers, Kant differentiated modes of thinking into

analytic and synthetic propositions. An analytic proposition is one in which the predicate is

contained in the subject, as in the statement “Black houses are houses.” The truth of this type of

proposition is evident, because to state the reverse would be to make the proposition

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满分网（SAT备考资料） self-contradictory. Such propositions are called analytic because truth is discovered by the analysis

of the concept itself. Synthetic propositions, on the other hand, are those that cannot be arrived at

by pure analysis, as in the statement “The house is black.” All the common propositions that result

from experience of the world are synthetic.

Key works: German philosopher great thinker

弗兰西斯 ·培根

弗兰西斯 ·培根（1561～1626），英国文艺复兴时期最重要的散作家、哲学家。他不但在文

学、哲学上多有建树，在自然科学领域里，也取得了重大成就。培根是一位经历了诸多磨难

的贵族子弟，复杂多变的生活经历丰富了他的阅历，随之而来的，使他的思想成熟，言论深

邃，富含哲理。人们完全可以说弗朗西斯·培根是一位真正的现代哲学家。他的整个世界观

是现世的而不是宗教的（虽然他坚信上帝）。他是一位理性主义者而不是迷信的崇拜者，是

一位经验论者而不是诡辩学者。在政治上，他是一位现实主义者而不是理论家。他那渊博的

学识连同精彩的文笔与科学和技术相共鸣。

Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon (1561-1626), English philosopher and statesman, one of the pioneers of modern

scientific thought. Bacon was educated at Trinity College, University of Cambridge. Elected to the

House of Commons in 1584, he served until 1614. He wrote letters of sound advice to Elizabeth I,

queen of England, but his suggestions were never implemented, and he completely lost favor with

the queen in 1593, when he opposed a bill for a royal subsidy. He regained the respect of the court,

however, with the accession of James I to the English throne in 1603. Bacon proposed schemes for

the union of England and Scotland and recommended measures for dealing with Roman Catholics.

For these efforts he was knighted on July 23, 1603, was made a commissioner for the union of

Scotland and England, and was given a pension in 1604. His Advancement of Learning was

published and presented to the king in 1605. Two years later he was appointed solicitor general.

In the last session of the first Parliament held (February 1611) under James I, the differences

between Crown and Commons grew critical, and Bacon took the role of mediator, despite his

distrust of James's chief minister, Robert Cecil, 1st earl of Salisbury. On Salisbury's death in 1612,

Bacon, in order to gain the king's attention, wrote several papers on statecraft, particularly on

relations between Crown and Commons. In 1613 he was appointed attorney general.

In 1616 Bacon became a privy councillor, and in 1618 he was appointed lord chancellor and raised

to the peerage as Baron Verulam. In 1620 his Novum Organum was published, and on January 26,

1621, he was created Viscount Saint Albans. In the same year he was charged by Parliament with

accepting bribes. He confessed but said that he was “heartily and penitently sorry.” He submitted

himself to the will of his fellow peers, who ordered him fined, imprisoned during the king's

pleasure, and banished from Parliament and the court. After his release, he retired to his family

residence at Gorhambury. In September 1621 the king pardoned him but prohibited his return to

Parliament or the court. Bacon then resumed his writing, completing his History of Henry VII and

his Latin translation of The Advancement of Learning (De Augmentis). In March 1622 he offered

to make a digest of the laws, with no further consequence despite repeated petitions to James I and

James's successor, Charles I. He died in London on April 9, 1626.

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满分网（SAT备考资料） Bacon's philosophy emphasized the belief that people are the servants and interpreters of nature,

that truth is not derived from authority, and that knowledge is the fruit of experience. Bacon is

generally credited with having contributed to logic the method known as ampliative inference, a

technique of inductive reasoning. Previous logicians had practiced induction by simple

enumeration, that is, drawing general conclusions from particular data. Bacon's method was to

infer by use of analogy, from the characteristics or properties of the larger group to which that

datum belonged, leaving to later experience the correction of evident errors. Because it added

significantly to the improvement of scientific hypotheses, this method was a fundamental

advancement of the scientific method.

Bacon's Novum Organum successfully influenced the acceptance of accurate observation and

experimentation in science. In it he maintained that all prejudices and preconceived attitudes,

which he called idols, must be abandoned, whether they be the common property of the race due

to common modes of thought (“idols of the tribe”), or the peculiar possession of the individual

(“idols of the cave”); whether they arise from too great a dependence on language (“idols of the

marketplace”), or from tradition (“idols of the theater”). The principles laid down in the Novum

Organum had an important influence on the subsequent development of empiricist thought.

Key words: philosopher statesman

科学家

孟德尔

孟德尔（Groegor Mendel，1822-1884）出生于捷克摩拉维亚（当时属奥地利）的一个农民家

庭，从小就在家里帮助父亲嫁接果树，在学习上已经表现出非凡的才能。1844-1848年，孟

德尔在布隆大学哲学院学习神学，曾选修迪博尔（Diebl，1770-1859）讲授的农学、果树学

和葡萄栽培学等课程。1848年在维也纳大学期间，孟德尔先后师从著名物理学家多普勒

（C·Doppler，1803-1853）、物理学家埃汀豪生（A·Ettinghausen）和植物生理学家翁格尔

（F·Unger，1800-1870），这三个人对他的科学思想无疑产生了很大影响。当时大多数科学

家所惯用的方法是培根式的归纳法，而多普勒则主张，先对自然现象进行分析，从分析中提

出设想，然后通过实验来进行证实或否决。埃汀豪生是一位成功地应用数学分析来研究物理

现象的科学家，孟德尔曾对他的大作《组合分析》仔细拜读。孟德尔后来做豌豆实验，能坚

持正确的指导思想，成功地将数学统计方法用于杂种后代的分析，与这两位杰出物理学家不

无关系。翁格尔当时正从事进化学说的研究，他认为研究变异是解决物种起源问题的关键，

并且用这种观点去启发他的学生孟德尔。通过翁格尔，孟德尔了解了盖尔特纳的杂交工作。

盖尔特纳写作的《植物杂交的实验与观察》既单调又重复，但涉及的范围很广，包含着一些

极有价值的观察结果。达尔文和孟德尔都曾仔细地读过这本书。孟德尔读过的书至今还保存

在捷克布隆的孟德尔纪念馆内，书中遍布记号和批注，有的内容正是以后孟德尔的实验计划

里的组成部分。由此可见，一个伟大的科学思想的形成绝非偶然。

Gregor Mendel

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884), Austrian monk, whose experimental work became the basis of

modern hereditary theory. Mendel was born on July 22, 1822, to a peasant family in Heinzendorf

(now Hyn?ice, Czech Republic). He entered the Augustinian monastery at Brünn (now Brno,

Czech Republic), which was known as a center of learning and scientific endeavor. He later

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满分网（SAT备考资料） became a substitute teacher at the technical school in Brünn. There Mendel became actively

engaged in investigating variation, heredity, and evolution in plants at the monastery's

experimental garden. Between 1856 and 1863 he cultivated and tested at least 28,000 pea plants,

carefully analyzing seven pairs of seed and plant characteristics. His tedious experiments resulted

in the enunciation of two generalizations that later became known as the laws of heredity. His

observations also led him to coin two terms still used in present-day genetics: dominance, for a

trait that shows up in an offspring; and recessiveness, for a trait masked by a dominant gene.

Mendel published his important work on heredity in 1866. Despite, or perhaps because of, its

descriptions of large numbers of experimental plants, which allowed him to express his results

numerically and subject them to statistical analysis, this work made virtually no impression for the

next 34 years. Only in 1900 was his work recognized more or less independently by three

investigators, one of whom was the Dutch botanist Hugo Marie de Vries, and not until the late

1920s and the early '30s was its full significance realized, particularly in relation to evolutionary

theory. As a result of years of research in population genetics, investigators were able to

demonstrate that Darwinian evolution can be described in terms of the change in gene frequency

of Mendelian pairs of characteristics in a population over successive generations.

Mendel's later experiments with the hawkweed Hieracium proved inconclusive, and because of the

pressure of other duties he ceased his experiments on heredity by the 1870s. He died in Brünn on

January 6, 1884.

Key words: father of genetics

袁隆平

袁隆平（1930-），农学家、杂交水稻育种专家。19xx年西南农学院农学系毕业。历任研究

员、湖南杂交水稻研究中心主任、湖南农科院名誉院长、国家杂交水稻工程技术研究中心主

任，19xx年当选为中国工程院院士。 袁隆平长期从事杂交水稻育种理论研究和制种技术实

践。19xx年首先提出培育“不育系、保持系、恢复系”三系法利用水稻杂种优势的设想并进

行科学实验。19xx年，与其助手李必湖和冯克珊在海南发现一株花粉败育的雄性不育野生

稻，成为突破“三系”配套的关键。 19xx年育成中国第一个大面积应用的水稻雄性不育系“二

九南一号A”和相应的保持系“二九南一号B”，次年育成了第一个大面积推广的强优组合“南

优二号”，并研究出整套制种技术。19xx年提出杂交水稻育种分为“三系法品种间杂种优势

利用、两系法亚种间杂种优势利用到一系法远缘杂种优势利用”的战略设想。被同行们誉为

“杂交水稻之父”

Yuan Longping（1930-）

"I saw rice plants as tall as Chinese sorghum,” said Yuan Longping of a dream he once had, “each

ear of rice as big as a broom and each grain of rice as huge as a peanut. I could hide in the shadow

of the rice crops with a friend." Born into a poor farmer's family in 1931 and a graduate from the

Southwest Agriculture Institute in 1953, Yuan began his teaching career at an agriculture school in

Anjiang, Hunan Province.

He came up with an idea for hybridizing rice in the 1960s, when a series of natural disasters and

inappropriate policies had plunged China into an unprecedented famine that caused many deaths.

Since then, he has devoted himself to the research and development of a better rice breed. In 1964,

he happened to find a natural hybrid rice plant that had obvious advantages over others. Greatly

encouraged, he began to study the elements of this particular type. In 1973, in cooperation with

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满分网（SAT备考资料） others, he was able to cultivate a type of hybrid rice species which had great advantages. It yielded

20 percent more per unit than that of common ones.

The next year their research made a breakthrough in seeding. They successfully developed a set of

technologies for producing indica (long-grained non-glutinous) rice, putting China in the lead

worldwide in rice production. For this achievement, he was dubbed the "Father of Hybrid Rice."

In 1979, their technique for hybrid rice was introduced into the United States, the first case of

intellectual property rights transfer in the history of new China.

Key words：agriculturist father of hybrid rice

约翰那什（1928-）

约翰·纳什生于19xx年6月13日。父亲是电子工程师与教师，第一次世界大战的老兵。纳

什小时孤独内向，虽然父母对他照顾有加，但老师认为他不合群不善社交。 纳什的数学天

分大约在14岁开始展现。他在普林斯顿大学读博士时刚刚二十出头，但他的一篇关于非合

作博弈的博士论文和其他相关文章，确立了他博弈论大师的地位。在20世纪50年代末，他

已是闻名世界的科学家了。

然而，正当他的事业如日中天的时候，30岁的纳什得了严重的精神分裂症。他的妻子艾利

西亚———麻省理工学院物理系毕业生，表现出钢铁一般的意志：她挺过了丈夫被禁闭治疗、

孤立无援的日子，走过了惟一儿子同样罹患精神分裂症的震惊与哀伤……漫长的半个世纪之

后，她的耐心和毅力终于创下了了不起的奇迹：和她的儿子一样，纳什教授渐渐康复，并在

19xx年获得诺贝尔奖经济学奖。

如今，纳什已经基本恢复正常，并重新开始科学研究。他现在是普林斯顿大学数学教授，但

已经不再任教。学校经济学系经常会举办有关博弈论的论坛，纳什有时候会参加，但是他几

乎从不发言，每次都是静静地来，静静地走。

John Nash（1928-）

When the young Nash had applied to graduate school at Princeton in 1948, his old Carnegie Tech

professor, R.J. Duffin, wrote only one line on his letter of recommendation: "This man is a genius".

It was at Princeton that Nash encountered the theory of games, then recently launched by John von

Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern. However, they had only managed to solve non-cooperative

games in the case of "pure rivalries" (i.e. zero-sum). The young Nash turned to rivalries with

mutual gain. His trick was the use of best-response functions and a recent theorem that had just

emerged - Kakutani's fixed point-theorem. His main result, the "Nash Equilibrium", was published

in 1950 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. He followed this up with a paper

which introduced yet another solution concept - this time for two-person cooperative games - the

"Nash Bargaining Solution" (NBS) in 1950. A 1951 paper attached his name to yet another side of

economics - this time, the "Nash Programme", reflecting his methodological call for the reduction

of all cooperative games into a non-cooperative framework.

His contributions to mathematics were no less remarkable. As an undergraduate, he had

inadvertently (and independently) proved Brouwer's fixed point theorem. Later on, he went on to

break one of Riemann's most perplexing mathematical conundrums. From then on, Nash provided

breakthrough after breakthrough in mathematics.

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满分网（SAT备考资料） In 1958, on the threshold of his career, Nash got struck by paranoid schizophrenia. He lost his job

at M.I.T. in 1959 (he had been tenured there in 1958 - at the age of 29) and was virtually

incapicated by the disease for the next two decades or so. He roamed about Europe and America,

finally, returning to Princeton where he became a sad, ghostly character on the campus - "the

Phantom of Fine Hall" as Rebecca Goldstein described him in her novel, Mind-Body Problem.

The disease began to evaporate in the early 1970s and Nash began to gradually to return to his

work in mathematics. However, Nash himself associated his madness with his living on an

"ultralogical" plane, "breathing air too rare" for most mortals, and if being "cured" meant he could

no longer do any original work at that level, then, Nash argued, a remission might not be

worthwhile in the end. As John Dryden once put it:

Great wits are sure to madness near allied,

And thin partitions do their bounds divide.

Key words: economist illness Nobel price winner

法拉第，迈克尔

法拉第（1791 -- 1867）是英国物理学家、化学家，也是著名的自学成才的科学家。1791年

9月22日萨里郡纽因顿一个贫苦铁匠家庭。因家庭贫困仅上过几年小学，13岁时便在一家

书店里当学徒。书店的工作使他有机会读到许多科学书籍。在送报、装订等工作之余，自学

化学和电学，并动手做简单的实验，验证书上的内容。利用业余时间参加市哲学学会的学习

活动，听自然哲学讲演，因而受到了自然科学的基础教育。由于他爱好科学研究，专心致志，

受到英国化学家戴维的赏识，1813年3月由戴维举荐到皇家研究所任实验室助手。这是法

拉第一生的转折点，从此他踏上了献身科学研究的道路。同年10月戴维到欧洲大陆作科学

考察，讲学，法拉第作为他的秘书、助手随同前往。历时一年半，先后经过法国、瑞士、意

大利、德国、比利时、荷兰等国，结识了安培、盖.吕萨克等著名学者。沿途法拉第协助戴

维做了许多化学实验，这大大丰富了他的科学知识，增长了实验才干，为他后来开展独立的

科学研究奠定了基础。 法拉第主要从事电学、磁学、磁光学、电化学方面的研究，他关于

磁生电的跨时代的伟大发现，使人类掌握了电磁运动相互转变以及机械能和电能相互转变的

方法，成为现代发电机、电动机、变压器技术的基础。

法拉第能够这样坚持10年矢志不渝地探索电磁感应现象，重要原因之一是同他关于各种自

然力的统一和转化的思想密切相关的，他始终坚信自然界各种不同现象之间有着无限多的联

系。也是在这一思想的指导下，他继续研究当时已知的伏打电池的电、摩擦电、温差电、伽

伐尼电、电磁感应电等各种电的同一性，1832年他发表了〈不同来源的电的同一性〉论文，

用大量实验论证了“不管电的来源如何，它的本性都相同”的结论，从而扫除了人们在电的本

性问题认识上的种种迷雾

Faraday, Michael 1791 -- 1867

Physicist and chemist. Born September 22, 1791, in Newington, Surrey. The family soon moved

to London, where young Michael, one of 10 children, picked up the rudiments of reading, writing,

and arithmetic. At the age of 14, he was apprenticed to a bookbinder and bookseller. He read

ravenously and attended public lectures, including some by Sir Humphry Davy. Faraday's career

began when Davy, temporarily blinded in a laboratory accident, appointed Faraday as his assistant

at the Royal Institution. With Davy as a teacher in analytical chemistry, Faraday advanced in his

scientific apprenticeship and began independent chemical studies. By 1825, he discovered

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满分网（SAT备考资料） benzene and had become the first to describe compounds of chlorine and carbon. He adopted the

atomic theory to explain that chemical qualities were the result of attraction and repulsion between

united atoms. This proved to be the theoretical foundation for much of his future work.

Faraday had already done some work in magnetism and electricity, and it was in this field that he

made his most outstanding contributions. His first triumph came when he found a solution to the

problem of producing continuous rotation by use of electric current, thus making electric motors

possible. Hans Oersted had discovered the magnetic effect of a current, but Faraday grasped the

fact that a conductor at rest and a steady magnetic field do not interact and that to get an induced

current either the conductor or the field has to move. On August 29, 1831, Faraday discovered

electromagnetic induction.

During the next 10 years, Faraday explored and expanded the field of electricity. In 1834, he

announced his famous two laws of electrolysis. Briefly, they state that for any given amount of

electrical force in an electrochemical cell, chemical substances are released at the electrodes in the

ratio of their chemical equivalents. He also invented the voltammeter, a device for measuring

electrical charges, which was the first step toward the later standardization of electrical quantities.

Faraday continued to work in his laboratory, but his health began to deteriorate and he had to stop

work entirely in 1841. Almost miraculously, however, his health later improved and he resumed

work in 1844. He began a search for an interaction between magnetism and light and in 1845

turned his attention from electrostatics to electromagnetism. He discovered that an intense

magnetic field could rotate the plane of polarized light, a phenomenon known today as the

Faraday effect. In conjunction with these experiments, he showed that all matter conducts the

magnetic line of force. Objects that were good conductors he called paramagnetics, while those

that conducted the force poorly he named diamagnetics. Thus, the energy of a magnet is in the

space around it, not in the magnet itself. This is the fundamental idea of the field theory.

Faraday was a brilliant lecturer, and through his public lectures he did a great deal to popularize

science. Shortly after he became head of the Royal Institution in 1825, he inaugurated the custom

of giving a series of lectures for young people during the Christmas season. This tradition has

been maintained, and over the years the series have frequently been the basis for fascinating,

simply written, and informative books. Faraday died in London on August 25, 1867. The

admiration of physicists for Faraday has been demonstrated by naming the unit of capacitance the

farad and a unit of charge, the faraday. No other man has been doubly honored in this way. His

name also appears frequently in connection with effects, laws, and apparatus. These honors are

proper tribute to the man who was possibly the greatest experimentalist who ever lived.

Key words: physicist chemist

莱特兄弟

莱特兄弟是美国飞机发明家，航空先驱者。19xx年成功地进行了第一架可操纵的动力飞机

的持续飞行，19xx年制造和飞行了第一架实用的飞机。

1867年4月16日，维尔伯·赖特出生于印第安纳米尔维尔。1871年8月19日，奥维尔·赖特

出生于美国俄亥俄代顿。主教之子。早年主要靠自学设计和制造印刷机械和自行车。维尔伯

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满分网（SAT备考资料） 产生动力飞行的想法是受O．利林塔尔的影响。通过观察鹰在空中保持平衡的情况，1899

年维尔伯认识到飞机要能飞行，必须能绕3个轴转动即能向两侧倾斜，能升降，能向左右转

弯。1899年莱特兄弟制造第一架双翼机时安装了机械扭曲机翼，即在一侧机翼升力增加的

同时，另一侧机翼升力减小，由此操纵飞机压坡度转弯或由滚转改为平飞。他们的功绩除了

完成有动力的飞机飞行外，绕3个轴操纵飞机是他们对空气动力学和飞行方面的主要贡献。

为了实现动力飞行，他们决定先掌握滑翔飞行技术。19xx年—— 19xx年制造3架双翼滑翔

机并作了飞行。最后一架滑翔机有升降舵、方向舵和扭曲机翼。他们制造滑翔机时进行了大

量理论工作和实验工作，包括风洞试验。他们还设计和制造了实现动力飞行所必需的螺旋桨

和轻型发动机。19xx年人类历史上第一架有动力装置的飞机“飞行家”1号制造成功，12月

17日凌晨该机从平地起飞。第一次飞行12秒，最后一次59秒，飞行距离260米。19xx年“飞

行家”2号飞行成功。19xx年制造的“飞行家”3号是世界上第一架实用的飞机，能转弯、倾

斜、做圆圈飞行和8字飞行，续航时间超过半小时。19xx年10月16日至19xx年5月6日，

因财政拮据，莱特兄弟未进行过一次飞行。19xx年维尔伯在法国作飞行表演，5个月内飞行

100多次，总飞行时间超过25小时，其中约60次带乘客飞行，有7次飞行时间超过1小时，

最后一次飞行时间达2小时 20分。与此同时奥维尔也在美国作轰动一时的表演飞行，并为

美国陆军制造了世界上第一架军用飞机。19xx年之前，世界航空可说在莱特兄弟统治之下，

他们同时在欧洲和美国制造飞机。

The Wright Brothers (Wilbur and Orville)

Aviation pioneers, inventors. Wilbur was born near Millville, Indiana, and Orville (1871--1958)

was born in Dayton, Ohio. The sons of a minister of the United Brethren Church, the Wright

brothers showed mechanical genius from boyhood, although neither graduated from high school.

In 1892 they opened a bicycle sales and repair shop in Dayton and soon were making and selling

their own bicycles. Reading about experiments with gliders spurred their interest in flight, and

they built their first glider in 1899, a biplane kite with wings that could be twisted mechanically.

The brothers made their first trip to Kitty Hawk, North Carolina in 1900 to conduct glider

experiments on the sand hills there.

Back in Dayton they built the first wind tunnel and prepared their own tables of lift-pressures for

various wing surfaces and wind speeds. They also built a powerful four-cylinder engine and an

efficient propeller, and in September 1903 they returned to Kitty Hawk. Bad weather delayed the

testing of this aircraft until December 17, 1903, when Orville piloted it on a flight of 12 seconds

and 120 feet; Wilbur flew later in the day, staying aloft for 59 seconds to cover 852 feet. The

brothers built two sturdier, more reliable planes over the next two years and in 1906 received a

U.S. patent for a powered aircraft. Initially they sold their plane to the British and French

governments, but in 1908 the U.S. War Department contracted for a Wright flying machine for the

army. In 1909 they formed the American Wright Company and proceeded to manufacture their

improved planes and to train pilots.

Wilbur, a bachelor as was his brother, died of typhoid in May 1912. In 1915, Orville - who had

continued to test fly all his planes - retired from the aircraft manufacturing business to pursue his

own research interests. During World I he accepted a commission as a major to serve as a

consultant to the army air service and he served for many years on the National Advisory

Committee for Aeronautics.

Key words: inventor

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满分网（SAT备考资料）

贝尔（1847～1942 ）

“我知道命运掌握在我自己的手中，我知道巨大的成功马上就要到来。”贝尔曾自信地向世

界这样宣告。 1847年3月3日出生于苏格兰的爱丁堡。他的父亲是一位嗓音生理学家,并且

是矫正说话、教授聋人的专家。 1862年贝尔进入著名的爱丁堡大学，选择语音学作为自己

的专业，贝尔通过总结父辈们的经验进步很快。 1869年22岁的贝尔受聘为美国波士顿大

学语言学教授，担任声学讲座的主讲。在莫尔斯电报发明后的20多年中无数科学家试图直

接用电流传递语音，贝尔也把发明电话作为自己义不容辞的责任。但由于电话是传递连续的

信号而不是电报那样不连续的通断信号，在当时的难度好比登天。他在实验中发现了一个有

趣现象：每次电流通断时线圈发出类似于莫尔斯电码的“滴答”声，这引起贝尔大胆的设想：

如果能用电流强度模拟出声音的变化不就可以用电流传递语音了吗？随后的两年内贝尔刻

苦用功掌握了电学，再加上他扎实的语言学知识，使他如同插上了翅膀。他辞去了教授职务，

一心扎入发明电话的试验中。在万事俱备只缺合作者时他偶然遇到了18岁的电气工程师沃

特森。两年后，经过无数次失败后他们终于制成了两台粗糙的样机，但不幸的是试验失败了，

两人的声音是通过公寓的天花板而不是通过机器互相传递的。 正在他们冥思苦想之时，窗

外吉他的丁冬声提醒了他们：送话器和受话器的灵敏度太低了！他们连续两天两夜自制了音

箱、改进了机器。然后开始实验，刚开始沃特森只从受话器里听到嘶嘶的电流声，终于他听

到了贝尔清晰的声音“沃特森先生，快来呀！我需要你?　1875年6月2日傍晚，当时贝尔

28岁，沃特森21岁。他们趁热打铁，几经半年的改进，终于制成了世界上第一台实用的电

话机。

Bell, Alexander Graham 1847 – 1922 （贝尔）

Inventor and educator. Born March 3, 1847, in Edinburgh, Scotland. Bell is best known for

perfecting the telephone to transmit vocal messages by electricity. The telephone inaugurated a

new age in communication technology.

Bell’s father, Alexander Melville Bell, was an expert in vocal physiology and elocution; his

grandfather, Alexander Bell, was an elocution professor. After studying at the University of

Edinburgh and University College, London, Bell became his father's assistant. He taught the deaf

to talk by adopting his father's system of visible speech (illustrations of speaking positions of the

lips and tongue). In London he studied Hermann Ludwig von Helmholtz's experiments with

tuning forks and magnets to produce complex sounds. In 1865, Bell made scientific studies of the

resonance of the mouth while speaking.

In 1870, the Bells moved to Brantford, Ontario, Canada, to preserve Alexander's health. He went

to Boston in 1871 to teach at Sarah Fuller's School for the Deaf, the first such school in the world.

He also tutored private students, including Helen Keller. As professor of vocal physiology and

speech at Boston University in 1873, he initiated conventions for teachers of the deaf. Throughout

his life he continued to educate the deaf, and he founded the American Association to Promote the

Teaching of Speech to the Deaf.

From 1873 to 1876, Bell experimented with a phonautograph, a multiple telegraph, and an electric

speaking telegraph (the telephone). Funds came from the fathers of two of his pupils; one of these

men, Gardiner Hubbard, had a deaf daughter, Mabel, who later became Bell's wife.

Key words: inventor educator

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艺术家

梵高

梵高(1853-1890)生于荷兰的一个新教徒之家。少年时，他在伦敦、巴黎和海牙为画商工作，后来还在比利时的矿工中当过传教士。1881年左右，他开始绘画。1886年去巴黎投奔其弟，初次接触了印象派的作品，对他产生影响的还有著名画家鲁本斯、日本版画和著名画家高更。 1888年，梵高开始以色彩为基础表达强烈的感情。他曾短暂与高更交往，后来神经失常，被送进精神病院。在经历多次感情上的崩溃之后，梵高于1890年在奥维尔自杀。他对野兽派及德国的表现主义有巨大影响。 梵高一生为人敏感而易怒，聪敏过人，在生前他在许多事情上很少取得成功。其个人生活不幸而且艰辛，可他却随时都有献身给别人的爱、友谊和对艺术的热情。在短短的37年人生中，梵高把生命的最重要时期贡献给了艺术。他早期画作爱用荷兰传画的褐色调，但他天性中火一般的热情使他抛弃荷兰画派的暗淡和沉寂，并迅速远离印象派———印象派对外部世界瞬间真实性的追求和他充满主体意识的精神状态相去甚远。他不是以线条而是以环境来抓住对象；他重新改变现实，以达到实实在在的真实，促成了表现主义的诞生。

Gogh, Vincent Willem van (1853-1890),

Dutch postimpressionist painter, whose work represents the archetype of expressionism, the idea of emotional spontaneity in painting. Van Gogh was born March 30, 1853, in Groot-Zundert, son of a Dutch Protestant pastor. Early in life he displayed a moody, restless temperament that was to thwart his every pursuit. By the age of 27 he had been in turn a salesman in an art gallery, a French tutor, a theological student, and an evangelist among the miners at Wasmes in Belgium. His experiences as a preacher are reflected in his first paintings of peasants and potato diggers; of these early works, the best known is the rough, earthy Potato Eaters (1885, Rijksmuseum Vincent van Gogh, Amsterdam). Dark and somber, sometimes crude, these early works evidence van Gogh's intense desire to express the misery and poverty of humanity as he saw it among the miners in Belgium.

莎士比亚

（1564～1616） 英国著名戏剧家和诗人。出生于沃里克郡斯特拉特福镇的一个富裕市民家庭，曾在当地文法学校学习。13岁时家道中落辍学经商，约1586年前往伦敦。先在剧院门前为贵族顾客看马，后逐渐成为剧院的杂役、演员、剧作家和股东。1597年在家乡购置了房产，一生的最后几年在家乡度过。

莎士比亚是16世纪后半叶到17世纪初英国最著名的作家（本·琼斯称他为“时代的灵魂”），也是欧洲文艺复兴时期人文主义文学的集大成者。他共写有37部戏剧，154首14行诗，两首长诗和其他诗歌。长诗《维纳斯与阿多尼斯》（1592～1593）和《鲁克丽丝受辱记》（1593～1594）均取材于罗马诗人维奥维德吉尔的著作，主题是描写爱情不可抗拒以及谴责违背“荣誉”观念的兽行。14行诗（1592～1598）多采用连续性的组诗形式，主题是歌颂友谊和爱情。

Shakespeare, William 1564 – 1616 （莎士比亚）

Born in 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England (historians believe Shakespeare was born on April 23, the same day he died in 1616). The son of John Shakespeare, a glover, and Mary Arden, of farming stock. Much uncertainty surrounds Shakespeare's early life. He was the 更多资料请访问： 14

满分网（SAT备考资料） eldest of three sons, and there were four daughters. He was educated at the local grammar school,

and married Anne Hathaway, from a local farming family, in 1582. She bore him a daughter,

Susanna, in 1583, and twins, Hamnet and Judith, in 1585.

Shakespeare moved to London, possibly in 1591, and became an actor. From 1592 to 1594, when

the theatres were closed for the plague, he wrote his poems "Venus and Adonis" and "The Rape of

Lucrece." His sonnets, known by 1598, though not published until 1609, fall into two groups: 1 to

126 are addressed to a fair young man, and 127 to 154 to a "dark lady" who holds both the young

man and the poet in thrall. Who these people are has provided an exercise in detection for

numerous critics. The first evidence of his association with the stage is in 1594, when he was

acting with the Lord Chamberlain's company of players, later "the King's Men'. When the

company built the Globe Theatre south of the Thames in 1597, he became a partner, living

modestly at a house in Silver Street until c.1606, then moving near the Globe. He returned to

Stratford c.1610, living as a country gentleman at his house, New Place. His will was made in

March 1616, a few months before he died, and he was buried at Stratford.

The modern era of Shakespeare scholarship has been marked by an enormous amount of

investigation into the authorship, text, and chronology of the plays, including detailed studies of

the age in which he lived, and of the Elizabethan stage. Authorship is still a controversial subject

for certain plays, such as Titus Andronicus, Two Noble Kinsmen, and Henry VI, part I. This has

involved detailed studies of the various editions of the plays, in particular the different quarto

editions, and the first collected works, The First Folio of 1623. It is conventional to group the

plays into early, middle, and late periods, and to distinguish comedies, tragedies, and histories,

recognizing other groups that do not fall neatly into these categories.

Key words: playwright poet.

巴赫（1685-1750）

巴赫的音乐，可以说是构成欧洲音乐殿堂的一根重要支柱。对于整个巴罗克时期的音乐来说，

巴赫的音乐成就，可以说是架在这座殿堂上的圆顶；对于其后的欧洲音乐发展来说，虽然直

到19世纪巴赫才具有真正的影响力，但是这种影响力一旦产生，便对欧洲音乐的发展产生

了深远的影响。

在德国的图林根州“巴赫们”曾成为音乐家的代名词，这是因为巴赫一族，可以上溯到好几代

人，其职业都是一种组成行会的音乐职业，世家相传，他们属于音乐艺人这样一种特殊社会

阶层。在领主的宫廷中，巴赫的社会地位是仆役性质的，与厨子列在同一个名册上。他不具

有自由音乐家的社会地位，其创作的作品并不能直接成为其经济收入的来源，而是归于领主

所有。即使成为托马斯的宫廷乐长，他也很难维持在莱比锡的生活，死后也无遗产，不似贝

多芬死后还留有股票。他的作品除了在教堂中，在当时演出也很少，死后长期默默无闻。

J.S.巴赫是一个虔诚的宗教徒，他的音乐大多为表达对主的崇拜，表现主所创造的世界的和

谐，表达的不是情感而是信仰。J.S.巴赫认为，世间万物都是上帝之创造、之恩赐，都在上

帝的光辉沐浴之下，音乐所要歌颂的是这种上帝创造的和谐，和谐之中对那种上帝之光的仰

望。在J.S.巴赫看来，音乐是他通向天国，与上帝对话的云梯。音乐本身就是天堂的奇迹。

音乐方式，是通过隐蔽的理性的方式使人感觉上帝的存在。

Johann Sebastian Bach （1685-1750）

Bach was born on March 21, 1685 in Eisenach, Germany. His career is among the wonders of

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满分网（SAT备考资料） music. Bach wrote hundreds of compositions and is considered the greatest genius of baroque

music.

Bach was a devout Lutheran and his religious views are reflected in his works. He felt that

everything people do and believe has to do with religion. Bach, and many other composers of his

time, believed that baroque music helped protect people from the advance of doubt bred by

Renaissance ideas of scientific, rational inquiry. Bach believed he could best serve his church, and

the people around him, through his music.

名言：There's nothing remarkable about it. All one has to do is hit the right keys at the right time

and the instrument plays itself.

Key words: musician

艾伦.科普兰

艾伦.科普兰（1900～1990）美国作曲家、指挥家、钢琴家、演讲家、作家等。19xx年生于

布鲁克林。13岁开始学习钢琴，中学毕业后，随戈德马克学习对位与和声，19xx年在巴黎

枫丹白露音乐学校，从布朗热学作曲。19xx年回国，后任教于多所音乐院校。1935～1944

年受聘于哈佛大学。

科普兰一生致力于提倡美国音乐，他的讲学、创作活动、社会活动始终以此为宗旨和目的。

他的创作风格的变化实是当时各种音乐流派存在的一种写照，反映了音乐发展的状况。早期

作品乐队组曲《剧场音乐》（1925）有爵士乐因素，是对民族风格的初试；《钢琴变奏曲》（1930）、

《短交响曲》（1933）即为新古典主义影响的结果；19xx年以后，进入创作旺盛阶段，写下

了一系列能被听众广泛接受的民族音乐，如舞剧音乐《小伙子比利》（1938）、《牧区竞技》

（1942）、《阿巴拉契亚之春》（1944）、管弦乐曲《墨西哥沙龙》（1936）、《林肯肖像》（朗诵

与乐队，1942）等，奠定了他为美国学派代表人物的地位；晚期创作中还采用了十二音技法。

70年代以后很少创作。此外，科普兰对美国的普及音乐教育、发展美国现代音乐事业做出

了极大贡献。

Aaron Copland（1900～1990）

Aaron Copland was born on November 14, 1900 in New York City. His musical works ranged

from ballet and orchestral music to choral music and movie scores. For the better part of four

decades Aaron Copland was considered the premier American composer.

Copland learned to play piano from an older sister. By the time he was fifteen he had decided to

become a composer. His first tentative steps included a correspondence course in writing harmony.

In 1921 Copland traveled to Paris to attend the newly founded music school for Americans at

Fontainebleau. He was the first American student of the brilliant teacher, Nadia Boulanger. After

three years in Paris he returned to New York with his first major commission, writing an organ

concerto for the American appearances of Madame Boulanger. His "Symphony for Organ and

Orchestra" premiered in at Carnagie Hall in 1925.

Copland's growth as a composer mirrored important trends of his time. After his return from Paris

he worked with jazz rhythms in his "Piano Concerto" (1926). His "Piano Variations" (1930) was

strongly influenced by Igor Stravinsky's Neoclassicism. In 1936 he changed his orientation toward

a simpler style. He felt this made his music more meaningful to the large music-loving audience

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满分网（SAT备考资料） being created by radio and the movies. His most important works during this period were based on

American folk lore including "Billy the Kid" (1938) and "Rodeo" (1942). Other works during this

period were a series of movie scores including "Of Mice and Men" (1938) and "The Heiress"

(1948). In his later years Copland's work reflected the serial techniques of the so-called 12-tone

school of Arnold Schoenberg. Notable among these was "Connotations" (1962) commissioned for

the opening of Lincoln Center.

After 1970 Copland stopped composing, though he continued to lecture and conduct through the

mid-1980s. He died on December 2, 1990 at the Phelps Memorial Hospital in Tarrytown

(Westchester County), New York.

名言：Inspiration may be a form of super-consciousness, or perhaps of subconsciousness—I

wouldn't know. But I am sure it is the antithesis of self-consciousness.

Key words: musician educator

莫奈(1840～1926)

克劳德·莫奈是印象派最具代表性的大画家。19世纪末到20世纪初流行于欧洲各国的印象

派，注重人对生活的感觉和印象，主张到大自然中，尊重自然和人的感觉印象，影响力极为

深远。

印象主义画家吸取当时科学上的光学理论，认为色是在光的照射下而产生的，在不同时间、

环境、气候等客观条件下，受不同光的支配而有各种不同色彩。他们通过写生，发现过去长

期不被注意的色彩现象，从而在绘画色彩上引起了重大的革新。例如，过去一般认为草是绿

色的，但是如果眺望远方的原野，草却不是绿色，而是青色，如果在晚霞照射下看草，就成

为红色或灰色。

我们欣赏莫奈的油画连作“麦草堆”、 “白杨木”、 “浮翁大教堂”等，最能看出这种特征。他

对同一主题反复在一天中的不同时间写生描绘，画出不同的光景与气氛，显出光与色的高明

度及鲜明感，交织成光与色彩的华丽交响乐，创作了印象派的颠峰之作。

莫奈一生遗留五百件素描，两干多幅油画，两干七百封信件。八十六年的生涯，生命力旺盛，

创作量庞大。他的足迹从巴黎大街到地中海岸，从法国到伦敦、威尼斯、挪威，经常在各地

旅行写生，全力以赴地作风景画。莫奈从早期就迷恋表达阳光，他一生的精力，主要用在表

现外光的探索上，一幅幅画作，对外光和空气氛围作了淋漓尽致的描绘。而随着印象派诞生

一百多年来受人们的喜爱，莫奈成为享誉非常长久的画家。他画中的各种风景、光波粼粼的

水景、花开的原野、浸淫在阳光下行乐度假的人们，吸引无数人的欣赏、惊叹与灵感。莫奈

画作的群众魅力，深刻印证了艺术的永恒与人类的文化亲和力。

Edouard Manet(1840～1926)

Manet was born on January 23, 1832 in Paris. He is often identified with the "Impressionists," and

was influenced by them. However, because of the Paris art world's generally hostile regard for

"Impressionism," he chose not to exhibit with them. He preferred to show his work in the more

conservative exhibitions sponsored by the French government.

Manet learned to paint in the traditional style, but his work became more spontaneous after his

exposure to Claude Monet and the other "Impressionists." He used expressive outline, severe

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满分网（SAT备考资料） lighting contrasts, bold color and rich texture to portray the world around him.

Manet scandalized the people of Paris with a number of works containing nudes painted in bold

poses with direct, outward gazes. While it was popular during his time to paint scenes from the

Bible and ancient history, Manet painted scenes from 19th Century history, including one work

featuring the execution of Emperor Maximillian of Mexico in 1867.

Key words: painter impressionists

达·芬奇(1452 – 1519)

列奥纳多·达·芬奇1452年生于佛罗伦萨芬奇镇附近的安基亚诺村，1519年殁于法国安波斯

城克鲁堡，是欧洲文艺复兴最杰出的代表。他不仅是著名的艺术家，而且是伟大的科学家。

他是一位知识渊博、多才多艺的人，恩格斯对他的评价很高，赞扬他"不仅是大画家，而且

与是大数学家、力学家和工程师"。达·芬奇从小勤奋好学，天赋聪明。从孩提时代开始，他

就喜爱画画，人们称他为小画家。他的父亲赛尔·比埃罗·达·芬奇是佛罗伦萨的公证人。达·芬

奇是私生子，5岁时，生母被其父遗弃，他从小就跟祖父在乡下生活。由于他天资过人，14

岁时拜艺术家委罗基奥为师，到画室学画。他认真学习和钻研各方面的知识，为后来在艺术

及科学方面的提高打下了良好的基础。

达·芬奇一生的艺术活动分为早、中、晚三个时期，早期活动在佛罗伦萨，中期在米兰和佛

罗伦萨峡谷地，晚期在米兰。1513~1516年，他奔走于罗马和佛罗伦萨之间。他一生创作颇

丰，主要成就有以下几个方面：绘画方面创作了《蒙娜丽莎》《最后的晚餐》等一系列重要

作品；音乐方面能唱歌弹琴，吹奏笛子，谱曲作词，还主持文艺演出活动，设计舞台背景和

服装、道具；医学方面，医学家们公认达?芬奇是近代生理解剖的始祖；水利工程方面，达?

芬奇对水利学的研究比意大利的学者克斯铁列早一个世纪，而且其设计的一些水利设施至今

仍在发挥作用。除此之外，达芬奇还在物理，数学，天文，机械等方面具有重要的贡献。

Leonardo da Vinci(1452 – 1519)

Leonardo da Vinci was born in April 15, 1452 in Vinci, Italy. Leonardo's mastery in art, science

and engineering have earned him a place among the most prolific geniuses of history. He was one

of the most important artists of the Italian Renaissance, a period when the arts and sciences

flourished. At age 17, Leonardo and his father moved to Florence, where he apprenticed to

Verrocchio. His brilliance soon eclipsed that of his master. In 1472 Leonardo became a member of

the painter's guild of Florence, where he had contact with other great Florentine artists including

Michelangelo Buonarroti.

In 1481 Leonardo left Florence for Milan to offer his service to the local Duke. During this period

he painted the Virgin of the Rocks and the Last Supper. In 1499 Leonardo left Milan, traveling

through Mantua, to the court of Isabella d'Este; to Venice, where he consulted on architecture from

1495 to 1499; and in 1502 and 1503 was military engineer for Cesare Borgia. After his service to

the Borgias, Leonardo returned to Florence. It was during the period between 1503 and 1506,

while working primarily in Florence, that he had his greatest following and painted such classics

as the "Mona Lisa."

Leonardo left Florence for Milan in 1506, although he returned in 1507-8 to fight for his

inheritance from his Uncle. In 1509 he returned to Milan and devoted much of his time to

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满分网（SAT备考资料） scientific studies, and to engineering projects such as channeling the course of the Adda river. In

1512 Leonardo left Milan again, and from 1513 to 1516 was in Rome under the protection of

Giuliano de Medici, the brother of Pope Leo X. Here Leonardo came into contact with

Michelangelo, and another young rival, Raphael. After the death of Giuliano dei Medici, Leonardo

accepted an invitation from French friends and moved to the castle of Cloux near Amboise, where

he stayed with his faithful pupil Melzi until the end of his life. Leonardo died on May 2, 1519, and

was buried in the cloister of San Fiorentino in Amboise.

名言 ：Iron rusts from disuse; stagnant water loses its purity and in cold weather becomes

frozen; …even so does inaction sap the vigor of the mind.

Key words: versatility

商人

罗斯佩罗（1930-）

这个人一开始压根儿不知道IBM是什么，却很快成为IBM在美国西部销售额最高的人；这

个人并不倾心于计算机本身，却在60年代初富有远见地创办了EDS——全球最大的计算机

服务公司；这个从小为了多挣一分钱而绞尽脑汁的人，却一下子成了80年代IT业最富有的

人之一；在乔布斯被赶出苹果落魄之际，是他慷慨解囊投资创建NEXT。他还是一个人人皆

知的爱国主义者，象《第一滴血》中的兰博一样，他亲自带领一个营救队去营救关押在伊朗

的两名EDS人质；这还不算，19xx年，正当共和党的布什和民主党的克林顿为总统席位角

逐时，他打破了美国建国以来的传统历史，如同一匹黑马，代表无党派人士参加竞选。结果

他的声威节节上升，民意调查的支持率一度达到19%，几乎与布什、克林顿并驾齐驱……

这个人就是罗斯·佩罗，他以自己的经历精彩地证明了这套人生哲学。

Ross Perot（1930-）

Ross Perot, born in 1930, American business executive, philanthropist, and independent candidate

for the United States presidency in 1992. Henry Ross Perot was born in Texarkana, Texas. In 1953

he graduated from the United States Naval Academy. Perot did not excel scholastically at the

academy. However, fellow students elected him best all-around midshipman and class president

for life. Perot served in the Navy at sea from 1953 to 1957.

Upon receiving his discharge from the Navy, Perot worked in Dallas, Texas, as a computer

salesman for International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). In 1962, after meeting his

annual quota for computer sales in the first three weeks of January, Perot left IBM to start an

electronic data processing business, Electronic Data Systems (EDS). Through the 1960s, he built

his business by serving the vast data processing needs of medical insurance companies. In 1968

Perot profited enormously when EDS stock began to trade publicly. In 1984 Perot sold the

company to General Motors (GM) for $2.5 billion and secured a seat on GM's board of directors.

Differences with GM executives led to his departure from the board two years later. In 1988 Perot

launched a new data processing service company, Perot Systems Corporation.

A self-avowed patriot, Perot received substantial media attention in 1969 when he attempted to

deliver food, medicine, mail, and clothing to United States prisoners of war in Vietnam. In 1979

he organized a dramatic commando rescue of two EDS employees jailed in Iran after that

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满分网（SAT备考资料） country's revolution, further burnishing his reputation as a man of action. Perot cemented this

reputation when he declared his availability for the presidency on Larry King Live, a television

talk show, in 1992. At that time, Perot expressed his dissatisfaction with the performance of the

Republican and Democratic parties on issues such as the federal deficit, reform of term limits for

members of Congress, and campaign finance reform.

Perot accused the two major political parties of pandering to the American people and refusing to

ask citizens to make difficult choices necessary to move forward on the major issues of the day.

He presented his own economic plan, in a series of paid, 30-minute “infomercials” on television.

The plan proposed to deal with the problem of the national budget deficit by sharply increasing

gasoline taxes, increasing taxes on benefits of wealthier Social Security recipients, and limiting

deductions for mortgage interest.

Key words: business executive philanthropist independent candidate

洛克菲勒（1839—1937）

约翰·洛克菲勒出生在美国东北部一个小村，家境贫寒。幼年时，曾将别人送他的一对火鸡

精心喂养成群，挑好的在集市上出售。12岁时积蓄了50美元，他把钱借给邻居，收取本息。

在克利夫兰商业学校毕业后，曾任一运输公司会计，三年积蓄900美元。他未参加南北战争，

却在战争中捞取了1.7万美元。他沉默寡言，把全部精力倾注在金钱上。23岁时起，他靠炼

油厂获得了很多财富。1870年，他把两座炼油厂和石油输出商行合并，创建俄亥俄美孚石

油公司。此后不到两年的时间，他的公司以惊人的速度吞并发展。接着，为控制全国石油工

业，他操纵纽约中央铁路公司和伊利公司同宾夕法尼亚公司开展铁路运费方面的竞争。结果，

在8年内，美孚石油公司炼油能力从占全美4％猛增到95％。美孚公司几乎控制了美国全部

工业和几条大铁路干线。1882年，它成为美国历史上第一个托拉斯。后来，洛克菲勒财团

又形成由花旗银行、大通—曼哈顿银行等四家大银行和三家保险公司组成的金融核心机构，

这七大企业控制全国银行资产的12％和全国保险业资产的26％，洛氏家族通过它们影响工

业企业决策。洛克菲勒财团创办基金会，向教育、文化、医疗卫生和其他社会团体赠款，扩

大影响和势力。洛克菲勒财团还指派亲信人物担任政府要职，如曾任国务卿的杜勒斯、腊斯

克都担任过洛氏基金会董事长的职务；基辛格出任国务卿之前，曾担任纳尔逊·洛克菲勒（老

洛克菲勒之孙）的外交政策私人顾问。该家族的成员也活跃于政治舞台，左右内政和外交政

策，如纳尔逊·洛克菲勒就曾担任1974—19xx年美国副总统。

John D.Rockefeller（1839—1937）

John Davidson Rockefeller was born in Richford, New York in 1839. He attended the Cleveland

Central High School and at 16 he became a clerk in a commission house. Determined to work for

himself, Rockefeller saved all the money he could and in 1850 went into business with a young

Englishman, Maurice Clark. The company, Clark & Rockefeller Produce and Commission, sold

farm implements, fertilizers and household goods.

Rockefeller's company was fairly successful but did not bring him the wealth he desired. In 1862

Rockefeller heard that Samuel Andrews had developed a better and cheaper way of refining crude

petroleum. Rockefeller sold his original business and invested it in a new company he set up with

Andrews called Standard Oil.

One of the business problems that Rockefeller encountered was the high cost of transporting his

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满分网（SAT备考资料） oil to his Cleveland refineries (40 cents a barrel) and the refined oil to New York ($2 a barrel).

Rockefeller negotiated an exclusive deal with the railway company where he guaranteed sixty

car-loads a day. In return the transport prices were reduced to 35 cents and $1.30. The cost of his

oil was reduced and his sales increased dramatically.

Within a year four of his thirty competitors were out of business. Eventually Standard Oil

monopolized oil refining in Cleveland. Rockefeller now bought out Samuel Andrews for a million

dollars and turned his attentions to controlling the oil industry throughout the United States. His

competitors were given the choice of being swallowed up by Standard Oil or being crushed. By

1890 Rockefeller's had swollen into an immense monopoly which could fix its own prices and

terms of business because it had no competitors. In 1896 Rockefeller was worth about $200

million.

In November 1902, Ira Tarbell, one of the leading muckraking journalists in the United States,

began a series of articles in McClure's Magazine on how Rockefeller had achieved a monopoly in

refining, transporting and marketing oil. This material was eventually published as a book, History

of the Standard Oil Company (1904). Rockefeller responded to these attacks by describing Tarbell

as "Miss Tarbarrel".

President Theodore Roosevelt, who had been elected on a program that included reducing the

power of large corporations, attempted to use the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to deal with

Rockefeller's monopoly of the oil industry. This was largely ineffective and it was not until 1911

that the Supreme Court dissolved the Standard Oil monopoly.

The various press campaigns against Rockefeller had turned him into one of America's most hated

men. A devout Baptist, Rockefeller began giving his money away. He set up the Rockefeller

Foundation to "promote the well-being of mankind". Over the next few years Rockefeller gave

over $500 million in aid of medical research, universities and Baptist churches. He was also a

major supplier of funds to organizations such as the Anti-Saloon League that was involved in the

campaign for prohibition. By the time that he died died on 23rd My, 1937, John Davidson

Rockefeller had become a popular national figure.

Key words: businessman founder of Standard Oil

山姆-沃顿 （1918-）

当今都市生活中的白领们都早已习惯了每天用废弃的纸张背面打印资料，可是你知道这是谁

最先“发明”了这个方法吗？没错，他一定是个抠门到极点的人。他会毫不犹豫地捡起地上的

一分硬币；戴着棒球帽驾着几十年高龄的破旧老爷车翻山越岭；在小镇街角的理发店按最低

标准理发，理发师别想从他这得到一分钱小费；购买最便宜的日常用品；出差尽可能与人合

住中档客房；在外就餐只光顾家庭式的小饭店。他说：“我要给世界一个机会，叫人们看看

什么叫节约。” 可是与此相反，他曾经向美国５所大学捐出了数亿美元，并在全国范围内设

立了很多奖学金时。他的基金会先后资助过数以千计的各类公益组织。

这就是山姆-沃顿，举世闻名的“沃尔玛”公司的老板，一个永远友善微笑着的简朴老人，他

经营了几十年的沃尔玛公司在全球各地拥有４５００多家连锁店。美国《家族企业》２００

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满分网（SAT备考资料） ２年第一期推出的全球家族企业１０强排名中，沃尔玛抢到了冠军的奖牌；同年２月的《财

富》杂志出炉的“美国２００２年最受尊敬的１０大公司排行榜”上，沃尔玛名列榜首。

山姆-沃顿多年的经营生涯中一直都围绕着“顾客就是上帝”这个早已被各服务行业用滥了的

理念（但是没有人能比它的创造者用得更完美）做文章。他常常在例会上对员工说：“你们

也许会想你是在为你的经理或者上司工作，可事实上他和你们一样，我们公司最大的老板是

谁？顾客！”

“八颗牙”理论。早在山姆只有一家小店的时候，他就每天亲自打开店门，以微笑迎接顾客。

他说：“对顾客微笑的时候，尽量把你的牙齿露出八颗，因为实践证明，这样做能发出最友

善的微笑。”在公司举行的仪式上，他要求员工举手宣誓：“我保证今后对每个来到我面前的

顾客微笑，用眼睛致意并且予以问候。”

Ｓａｍ Ｗａｌｔｏｎ（1918-）

Contrary to popular belief, Sam Walton (the founder of Wal-Mart) was not from Arkansas. He was

actually born in Kingfish, Oklahoma on March 29, 1918. He was raised in Missouri where he

worked in his father's store while attending school. This was his first retailing experience and he

really enjoyed it. After graduating from the University of Missouri in 1940, he began his own

career as a retail merchant when he opened the first of several franchises of the Ben Franklin

five-and-dime franchises in Arkansas.

This would lead to bigger and better things and he soon opened his first Wal-Mart store in 1962 in

Rogers, Arkansas. Wal-Mart specialized in name-brands at low prices and Sam Walton was

surprised at the success. Soon a chain of Wal-Mart stores sprang up across rural America. Walton's

management style was popular with employees and he founded some of the basic concepts of

management that are still in use today. After taking the company public in 1970, Walton

introduced his "profit sharing plan". The profit sharing plan was a plan for Wal-Mart employees to

improve their income dependent on the profitability of the store. Sam Walton believed that

"individuals don't win, teams do". Employees at Wal-Mart stores were offered stock options and

store discounts. These benefits are commonplace today, but Walton was among the first to

implement them. Walton believed that a happy employee meant happy customers and more sales.

Walton believed that by giving employees a part of the company and making their success

dependent on the company's success, they would care about the company.

By the 1980s, Wal-Mart had sales of over one billion dollars and over three hundred stores across

North America. Wal-Mart's unique decentralized distribution system, also Walton's idea, created

the edge needed to further spur growth in the 1980s amidst growing complaints that the

"superstore" was squelching smaller, traditional Mom and Pop stores. By 1991, Wal-Mart was the

largest U.S. retailer with 1,700 stores. Walton remained active in managing the company, as

president and CEO until 1988 and chairman until his death. He was awarded the Medal of

Freedom shortly before his death.

Walton died in 1992, being the world's second richest man, behind Bill Gates. He passed his

company down to his three sons, daughter and wife. Wal-Mart Stores Incorporated (located in

Bentonville, Arkansas) is also in charge of "Sams Club". Wal-Mart stores now operate in Mexico,

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满分网（SAT备考资料） Canada, Argentina, Brazil, South Korea, China and Puerto Rico. Sam Walton's visions were

indeed successful.

In Walton's biography, Made in America : My Story he outlines what he feels are the ten

commandments of business:

1.Commit to your goals

2. Share your rewards

3. Energize your colleagues

4. Communicate all you know

5. Value your associates

6. Celebrate your success

7. Listen to everyone

8. Deliver more than you promise

9. Work smarter than others

10. Blaze your own path

Key words: businessman founder of Walmart

雷·克罗克（1902–1984）

雷·克罗克在芝加哥郊外开设了自己的第一家麦当劳餐厅。经过50年的发展，麦当劳已成为

全球最大的快餐连锁集团。不过，麦当劳在迅速积累起巨大声名的同时，也饱受批评和指责。

营养学家指出，麦当劳的高热量煎炸食物让美国人整个胖了一圈”，麦当劳也因此成为众多

肥胖人士控告的对象。不过，麦当劳并不认为他们应该为美国人的肥胖问题以及其他健康问

题负责，因为这完全是个人的责任”。虽然克罗克被人们称谓麦当劳之父”，但最早的麦当劳

餐厅并不是他创立的，而且麦当劳真正的年龄其实也不止50岁。上溯到20世纪50年代初，

克罗克还是一名牛奶搅拌器的销售商。有一次，他卖给加利福利亚一家餐厅8台牛奶搅拌器。

他对此十分好奇，因为他觉得一家餐厅用不着添置8台牛奶搅拌器，于是他便前往那家餐厅

想看个究竟。结果，那家餐厅的两位麦当劳兄弟的经营理念让他深受启发价格低廉、快速服

务、能让年轻人在车里享用。雷·克罗克认为麦当劳兄弟的这一做法是革命性的，完全可以

加以复制到其他地方经营，于是便有了他在芝加哥的第一家麦当劳餐厅。最初，雷·克罗克

是以加盟店的形式与麦当劳兄弟合作的。19xx年，雷·克罗克以270万美元的价格从麦当劳

兄弟手中购买了麦当劳餐厅的所有权，并将麦当劳餐厅以连锁形式推向全美国。到了1968

年，麦当劳开始向海外进军，最终成为了全球拥有最多分店的快餐巨头”。

Raymond Albert Kroc（1902–1984）

Kroc's first job was with his uncle, Earl Edmund Sweet, in a soda fountain the summer before he

started high school. The next summer Ray dropped out of school, and he used the money he made

the previous summer to rent a building with two friends. They sold sheet music and small

instruments, but after a few months the business failed.

In the early 1940s, Kroc became the exclusive distributor of a multimixer that could mix five milk

shakes simultaneously. Two of his best customers were the McDonald brothers, Richard and

Maurice (Mac), who bought eight of the mixers for their fast-food restaurants. The McDonalds

had started with a group of hot-dog carts, and now had a chain of restaurants—for which Richard

McDonald designed the "golden arches" logo and the "number-of-hamburgers-sold" sign.

In 1954, Kroc went to San Bernardino, California, to see the McDonald brothers' restaurant, which

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满分网（SAT备考资料） used an assembly-line format to prepare foods. Kroc decided to set up a chain of drive-in

restaurants based on the McDonalds' format and convinced the brothers to sell him the rights to

franchise McDonald's restaurants nationwide. His first restaurant opened on April 15, 1955, in Des

Plaines, Illinois. Kroc also began selling franchises on the condition that the owners managed their

restaurants. Kroc was known for his obsessive cleanliness, and he wanted the restaurants kept very

clean. In 1961, Kroc bought out the McDonald brothers for $2,700,000. At this time he had

established 228 restaurants, and sales had reached $37,000,000. By 1963 more than 1 billion

hamburgers had been sold.

Key words: businessman founder of Mcdonald's

克莱斯勒（1875-1940）

克莱斯勒从小就表现出了在机械方面的天赋， 18岁时，他制造了一辆微型蒸汽车，虽然这

辆车更像是一件玩具，但却“五脏俱全”，可以在后院里他专门铺设的轨道上行驶，20岁那

年，他被一家工厂聘为机械师，可以拿到一份令人羡慕的薪金。但是，克莱斯靳具有一种对

任何事情都十分好奇的正确性，不愿意始终呆在一个岗位上，总想寻找其他发展自己的机会。

年轻的克莱斯勒到底换过多少次工作，恐怕连他自己都无法记得清楚，直到33岁那年，才

相对稳定地受聘担任了芝加哥西部铁路的动力总负责人。

19xx年，克莱斯勒辞掉了年薪12000美元的工作，受聘担任了通用汽车公司别克分部中一

家工厂的技术经理，年薪只有6000美元。由于他精通机械、技术超群，在通用公司的作用

越来越重要，19xx年年薪增加到2.5万美元，19xx年增加到5万美元，“通用”一心一意想

留下他为公司效力。但克莱斯勒本人却产生了离开“通用”，独自去干一番事业的想法。正在

此时，杜兰特重返“通用”，他为了振兴“通用”，急于招揽一批人才时，对其竭力挽留，不仅

委任他担任了别克部的主要负责人和公司第一副总经理，而且还将其年薪一下子提高到50

万美元。然而，由于克莱斯勒与杜兰特难以合作，他还是于19xx年3月25日离开了“通用”。

经过辗转，克莱斯勒终于促成立了自己的公司。汽车公司成立心以后，发展极其迅速。相继

推出的“克莱斯勒4号”和“系列58”两种新车为其发展做出了贡献。公司在19xx年的国内排

名只有27位，19xx年末升至第5位，19xx年则又上升至第4位。19xx年通过股票交易的

方式买下了道奇公司和普利茅斯汽车公司。道奇公司当时在美国排名第三，有良好的商誉和

可靠的销售网，买下它之后，克来斯勒在19xx年即跃升为美国三大汽车公司之一，后来还

曾有过超过福特位居第二位的辉煌。1930-19xx年间，克莱斯勒相继成立了安普莱部和爱尔

坦普部，从事轴承和散热器的生产。

Walter P. Chrysler（1875-1940）

Walter Percy Chrysler is the founder of what is today known as the third largest North American

automaker: the Chrysler Corporation. Walter Chrysler was born on April 2, 1875, in Wamego,

Kansas. Several years later the Chrysler family moved to the western Ellis, Kansas. His father

worked for the railroad industry as an engineer. It was at the shops of the Kansas Pacific Railroad,

where he spent much time with his father as a young boy, that he developed an acute interest in the

workings of a locomotive. Walter attended the public school system of Ellis where he finished

high school. He then became a machinist's apprentice at the Union Pacific Railroad. At the age of

eighteen he designed and built a miniature steam locomotive that ran on an eighth of a mile track

that he also built. He made many of his own possessions because it was not enough to just know

how to use his tools but how to make them as well. Mechanical engineering became a way of life

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满分网（SAT备考资料） not just a profession. The young machinist was well on his way to making a name for himself.

Walter P. Chrysler's automotive career started in 1911, as a Works Manager for Buick in Flint,

Michigan. Buick was the cornerstone on which William C. Durant built General Motors in 1908.

W. C. Durant had lost the presidency of General Motors in 1910. Mr. Chrysler went to work

resolving many engineering and production problems at Buick. His reputation quickly included a

tremendous ability in automaking and sound management. In 1916, W.C. Durant regained the

presidency of General Motors and fired Charles W. Nash who became the president three years

earlier. Walter Chrysler was made President and General Manager of Buick. Durant found out that

Mr. Chrysler was considering an offer to take over Packard Motors. Durant offered him a raise

from his salary of $50,000 a year to $500,000 a year to stay at Buick. He accepted. He was also

named General Motors' Vice President in charge of production. Now the other divisions within

GM had the fortune of Mr. Chrysler's expertise. His next promotion put him in the office of

Executive Vice President of General Motors. He now worked closely with W. C. Durant. He

became troubled with Durant's style of business: constant over-expansion. Mr. Chrysler felt this

was a path to imminent corporate disaster. It was this disagreement in business philosophy that

lead Mr. Chrysler to retire from General Motors in 1920. His reputation in the automotive industry

now was immense. He had regained Buick's name as a synonym for soundness and quality. He had

increased production from forty cars a day to over five hundred cars a day. This all helped GM

reach a profit of almost fifty million dollars annually. Later, William C. Durant was forced to

resign by the bankers that held General Motors' eighty million-dollar debt. Walter P. Chrysler

retired from the automotive industry in 1920, at the age of forty-five, financially independent and

since then his great career began.

沃特·迪斯尼 （1901 - 1966）

19xx年12月5日生于芝加哥，19xx年12月15日卒于洛杉机。早年就读于堪萨斯城美术学

院，20年代初开始制作动画短片，19xx年起拍摄有声动画短片(《威利号汽船》等)。最受

欢迎的动画片是米老鼠和唐老鸭。因米老鼠片获19xx年奥斯卡特别奖。19xx年制成有史以

来第一部大型动画故事片《白雪公主和七个小矮人》，获8项奥斯卡奖。其他名作有《木偶

奇遇记》(1940)、《幻想曲》(1940)、《飞象邓博》(1941)、《小鹿班比》(1942)、《灰姑娘》(1950)、

《爱丽斯漫游仙境》(1951)、《睡美人》(1959)。

多数作品剧情动人，造型别致，笔调幽默，寓意深刻。人格化的小动物动作夸张，性格活泼，

形象明朗可爱。第二次世界大战期间为政府拍宣传片，后因动画故事片成本高，使生产纪录

大自然罕见现象的猎奇片、冒险片、真人故事片及彩色电视系列片。他成功的原因是对儿童

心理了解深刻，想象力丰富，善于物色人才，组织能力强，重视新技术。迪斯尼公司创造了

动画片角色的动作和音乐同时创作的工艺，使音响和画面同步，19xx年首先采用三色法工

艺。他兴办的大型游乐场迪斯尼乐园(加利福尼亚)和迪斯尼世界(佛罗里达)以技术设施再现

出他的动画片中的境界，并用他的动画片中的人物进行表演。

Walt Disney（1901 - 1966）

Disney was born on December 5, 1901 in Chicago, Illinois. Disney is the creator of the

world-famous cartoon character, Mickey Mouse. The small animation company started in

Hollywood, California by Disney and his brother Roy, has grow into one of the world's most

powerful media conglomerates.

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满分网（SAT备考资料） Besides Mickey Mouse, Disney created such cartoon characters as Donald Duck, Goofy, and Pluto.

Winner of a record 30 Academy Awards, he created the first full-length animated feature films,

beginning with "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" in 1937, and including "Pinocchio" in 1938

and "Bambi" in 1942. He also made "true-life" adventure films including "Seal Island" in 1948

and "Davy Crockett" in 1955. He also produced the first color television series, "Disney's

Wonderful World of Color" beginning in 1961.

In addition to animation and movies, Disney launched two amusement parks: Disneyland in

California and Walt Disney World in Florida. Since his death in 1966 the Disney company has

opened Disneyland Paris in France, and produced a new series of animated feature films. Just this

year Disney purchased Capital Cities/ABC Television.

名言：If you can dream it, you can do it.

Key words: animator bussinessman

政治家

甘地

甘地（1869-1948），印度现代民族解放运动的著名领袖，现代民族资产阶级政治学说——甘

地主义的创始人。他从小就熟读印度教经典，把“逢恶报以善，用德报以怨”作为自己的处世

格言。1887年，他进入萨马达尔斯学院，同年到伦敦大学攻读法学，四年后学成归国，先

后在孟买、拉杰科特担任律师。

1893年4月，甘地为处理一起债务纠纷来到南非，在那里参加了当地反对种族歧视、争取

平等权利的斗争。在南非的21年中，他把印度教毗湿奴派的仁爱、素食、不杀生主张同《圣

经》、《古兰经》中的仁爱思想结合起来，并受梭伦、托尔斯泰、鲁斯金著作的影响，最终形

成了一整套非暴力主义的理论。在这一思想指导下，他领导在南非的印度侨民展开反对禁止

印度向南非移民的“黑色法案”和《亚洲人登记条例》的斗争，其间，他曾三次被捕入狱，但

最终迫使官方作出了让步，非暴力运动取得了初步胜利。

甘地的伟大人格几乎是举世公认。他具有赤诚的爱国热诚，崇高的牺牲精神，追求真理的执

著信念；坚强的意志，坚韧的耐心，随机应变的本领；他待人谦恭、诚实、光明磊落，不分

贵贱善恶一视同仁，没有种族歧视和宗教偏见；他注重实际，反对空谈；他关心下层人民疾

苦，善于体察民情并始终与人民群众打成一片；他生活清苦，安贫乐道；他尊重女性，提倡

人的精神完善和社会和谐；他的道德修养堪称楷模。正因为如此，甘地这位身材矮小、其貌

不扬的东方人博得了不同民族、信仰和阶级的人的景仰和爱戴。

Mahatma Gandhi （1869-1948）

Gandhi’s campaign of nonviolent civil resistance to British rule of India led to India’s

independence in 1947. A member of the merchant caste, Mohandas K. Gandhi, later called

Mahatma (Sanskrit for “great soul”), studied law in London. As a lawyer, and later as a political

activist, he effectively fought discrimination with his principles of truth, nonviolence, and courage.

Gandhi became the international symbol of a free India. He lived a spiritual and ascetic life of

prayer, fasting, and meditation. His union with his wife became, as he himself stated, that of

brother and sister. Refusing earthly possessions, he wore the loincloth and shawl of the lowliest

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满分网（SAT备考资料） Indian and subsisted on vegetables, fruit juices, and goat's milk. Indians revered him as a saint and

began to call him Mahatma (Sanskrit, “great soul”), a title reserved for the greatest sages. Gandhi's

advocacy of nonviolence, known as ahimsa (Sanskrit, “noninjury”), was the expression of a way

of life implicit in the Hindu religion. By the Indian practice of nonviolence, Gandhi held, Britain

too would eventually consider violence useless and would leave India.

Gandhi's death was regarded as an international catastrophe. His place in humanity was measured

not in terms of the 20th century but in terms of history. A period of mourning was set aside in the

United Nations General Assembly, and condolences to India were expressed by all countries.

Religious violence soon waned in India and Pakistan, and the teachings of Gandhi came to inspire

nonviolent movements elsewhere, notably in the U.S. under the civil rights leader Martin Luther

King, Jr.

曼德拉（1918-）

纳尔逊·罗利赫拉赫拉·曼德拉( Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela ）１９１８年７月１８日出生

于南非特兰斯凯一个大酋长家庭，先后获南非大学文学士和威特沃特斯兰德大学律师资格，

当过律师。曼德拉自幼性格刚强，崇敬民族英雄。他是家中长子而被指定为酋长继承人。但

他表示：“决不愿以酋长身份统治一个受压迫的部族”，而要“以一个战士的名义投身于民族

解放事业”。他毅然走上了追求民族解放的道路。１９４４年他参加南非非洲人国民大会（简

称非国大）。１９４８年当选为非国大青年联盟全国书记，１９５０年任非国大青年联盟全

国主席。１９５２年先后任非国大执委、德兰士瓦省主席、全国副主席。同年年底，他成功

地组织并领导了“蔑视不公正法令运动”，赢得了全体黑人的尊敬。为此，南非当局曾两次

发出不准他参加公众集会的禁令。

1９６１年６月曼德拉创建非国大军事组织“民族之矛”，任总司令。１９６２年８月，曼德

拉被捕入狱，当时他年仅４３岁，南非政府以政治煽动和非法越境罪判处他５年监禁。１９

６４年６月，他又被指控犯有以阴谋颠覆罪而改判为无期徒刑，从此开始了漫长的铁窗生涯，

在狱中长达２７个春秋，他备受迫害和折磨，但始终坚贞不屈。１９９０年２月１１日，南

非当局在国内外舆论压力下，被迫宣布无条件释放曼德拉。同年３月，他被非国大全国执委

任命为副主席、代行主席职务，１９９１年７月当选为主席。１９９４年４月，非国大在南

非首次不分种族的大选中获胜。同年５月，曼德拉成为南非第一位黑人总统。１９９７年１

２月，曼德拉辞去非国大主席一职，并表示不再参加１９９９年６月的总统竞选。１９９９

年６月正式去职。

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela（1918-）

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the small village of Mvezo, on the

Mbashe River, district of Umtata in Transkei, South Africa. His Father named him Rolihlahla,

which means "pulling the branch of the tree", or more colloquially "troublemaker." The name

Nelson was not given until his first day at school.

Nelson Mandela's father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was the chief "by blood and custom" of

Mvezo, a position confirmed by the paramount chief of the Thembu, Jongintaba Dalindyebo.

Although the family is descended from Thembu royalty (one of Mandela's ancestors was

paramount chief in the 18th century) the line had passed down to Mandela through lesser 'Houses',

rather than through a line of potential succession. The clan name of Madiba, which is often used

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满分网（SAT备考资料） as a form of address for Mandela, comes from the ancestral chief.

In 1962 Nelson Mandela was smuggled out of South Africa. He first attended and addressed the

conference of African nationalist leaders, the Pan-African Freedom Movement, in Addis Ababa.

From there he went to Algeria to undergo guerrilla training, and then flew to London to catch up

with Oliver Tambo (and also to meet members of the British parliamentary opposition). On his

return to South Africa, Mandela was arrested and sentenced to five years for "incitement and

illegally leaving the country".

At the end of his four hour statement to the court Nelson Mandela stated:

"During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the African people. I have fought

against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal

of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal

opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal

for which I am prepared to die."

These words are said to sum up the guiding principles by

Key words: politician national revolution

贞德(1412—1431)

圣女（法语：Jeanne d'Arc或Jeanne la Pucelle，）是法国的女英雄、军事家，天主教的圣人（女

的称为圣女）。在英法百年战争（1337年-1453年）中她带领法国平民组成的军队对抗英军

的入侵，最后被擒并被处决。

贞德本来只是一个生於法国香槟区和洛林边界的杜鲁弥村的一个农村栋雷米的平凡小女孩。

当时法国北部被英国占领，而英国又与勃艮第公国结盟。当时栋雷米属於亲英国─勃艮第联

盟的巴雷公爵的领地。她声称在十六岁时的一日，她在村后的大树下，遇见天使圣米迦勒和

圣玛桂莱德，从而得到「神的启示」，要求她带兵收复当时由英国人占领的法国失地。后来

她几番转折，得到兵权，于1429年解奥尔良之围，并带兵多次打败英国的侵略者，更促成

拥有王位承继权的查理七世于同年7月16日得以加冕。然而圣女贞德于1430年贡比涅之战

为勃艮第公国所俘，不久为英国人以重金购去，由英国当局控制下的宗教裁判所以异端、女

巫罪判处她火刑，于1431年5月30曰在法国卢昂当众处死。1456年由查理七世主导的宗

教裁判所为她平反，于19xx年由教宗封圣。

Jeanne d'Arc(1412-1431)

Joan of Arc, Saint, in French, Jeanne d'Arc (1412-1431), called the Maid of Orléans, national

heroine and patron saint of France, who united the nation at a critical hour and decisively turned

the Hundred Years' War in France's favor.

Joan was born of peasant parentage in Domrémy (now Domrémy-la-Pucelle). When she was 13

years old, she believed she heard celestial voices. As they continued, sometimes accompanied by

visions, she became convinced that they belonged to St. Michael and to the early martyrs St.

Catherine of Alexandria and St. Margaret. Early in 1429, during the Hundred Years' War, when the

English were about to capture Orléans, the “voices” exhorted her to help the Dauphin, later

Charles VII, king of France. Charles, because of both internal strife and the English claim to the

throne of France, had not yet been crowned king. Joan succeeded in convincing him that she had a

divine mission to save France. A board of theologians approved her claims, and she was given

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满分网（SAT备考资料） troops to command. Dressed in armor and carrying a white banner that represented God blessing

the French royal emblem, the fleur-de-lis, she led the French to a decisive victory over the English.

At the subsequent coronation of the Dauphin in the cathedral at Reims, she was given the place of

honor beside the king.

Although Joan had united the French behind Charles and had put an end to English dreams of

hegemony over France, Charles opposed any further campaigns against the English. Therefore, it

was without royal support that Joan conducted (1430) a military operation against the English at

Compiègne, near Paris. She was captured by Burgundian soldiers, who sold her to their English

allies. The English then turned her over to an ecclesiastical court at Rouen to be tried for heresy

and sorcery. After 14 months of interrogation, she was accused of wrongdoing in wearing

masculine dress and of heresy for believing she was directly responsible to God rather than to the

Roman Catholic church. The court condemned her to death, but she penitently confessed her

errors, and the sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. Because she resumed masculine

dress after returning to jail, she was condemned again—this time by a secular court—and, on May

30, 1431, Joan was burned at the stake in the Old Market Square at Rouen as a relapsed heretic.

Key words: saint revolution

旺加里·马塔伊

旺加里·马塔伊（Wangari Muta Maathai，19xx年4月1日—）是肯尼亚的社会活动家，2004

年诺贝尔和平奖得主。是绿带运动和非洲减债运动联盟的发起人。

她是东、西非的第一个女博士。19xx年发起了一个以妇女和环境为主的绿带运动。19xx年

代，她因为反对开发商强占共有土地，被肯尼亚当局监禁和鞭打。但是她通过不懈的努力，

在20xx年被选为国会议员。

Wangari Muta Maathai

Wangari Muta Maathai was born in Nyeri, Kenya (Africa) in 1940. The first woman in East and

Central Africa to earn a doctorate degree. Wangari Maathai was active in the National Council of

Women of Kenya in 1976-87 and was its chairman in 1981-87. It was while she served in the

National Council of Women that she introduced the idea of planting trees with the people in 1976

and continued to develop it into a broad-based, grassroots organization whose main focus is the

planting of trees with women groups in order to conserve the environment and improve their

quality of life. However, through the Green Belt Movement she has assisted women in planting

more than 20 million trees on their farms and on schools and church compounds.

In 1986, the Movement established a Pan African Green Belt Network and has exposed over 40

individuals from other African countries to the approach. Some of these individuals have

established similar tree planting initiatives in their own countries or they use some of the Green

Belt Movement methods to improve their efforts. So far some countries have successfully

launched such initiatives in Africa (Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Lesotho, Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, etc).

In September 1998, she launched a campaign of the Jubilee 2000 Coalition. She has embarked on

new challenges, playing a leading global role as a co-chair of the Jubilee 2000 Africa Campaign,

which seeks cancellation of the unpayable backlog debts of the poor countries in Africa by the

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满分网（SAT备考资料） year 2000. Her campaign against land grabbing and rapacious allocation of forests land has caught

the limelight in the recent past.

Wangari Maathai is internationally recognized for her persistent struggle for democracy, human

rights and environmental conservation. She has addressed the UN on several occasions and spoke

on behalf of women at special sessions of the General Assembly for the five-year review of the

earth summit. She served on the commission for Global Governance and Commission on the

Future. She and the Green Belt Movement have received numerous awards, most notably The

2004 Nobel Peace Prize. Others include The Sophie Prize (2004), The Petra Kelly Prize for

Environment (2004), The Conservation Scientist Award (2004), J. Sterling Morton Award (2004),

WANGO Environment Award (2003), Outstanding Vision and Commitment Award (2002),

Excellence Award from the Kenyan Community Abroad (2001), Golden Ark Award (1994), Juliet

Hollister Award (2001), Jane Adams Leadership Award (1993), Edinburgh Medal (1993), The

Hunger Project's Africa Prize for Leadership (1991), Goldman Environmental Prize (1991), the

Woman of the World (1989), Windstar Award for the Environment (1988), Better World Society

Award (1986), Right Livelihood Award (1984) and the Woman of the Year Award (1983).

Professor Maathai was also listed on UNEP's Global 500 Hall of Fame and named one of the 100

heroines of the world. In June 1997, Wangari was elected by Earth Times as one of 100 persons in

the world who have made a difference in the environmental arena. Professor Maathai has also

received honorary doctoral degrees from several institutions around the world: William's College,

MA, USA (1990), Hobart & William Smith Colleges (1994), University of Norway (1997) and

Yale University (2004).

Key words: Nobel price winner green belt movement

叶卡捷琳娜二世（1729～1796）

俄国女皇（1762～1796）。原名索菲娅·弗里德里克·奥古斯特。1729年5月2日生于奥得河

畔的什切青市（今波兰境内），1796年11月17日猝死于皇村（今普希金市）。父亲是德意

志安霍尔特-策尔布斯特王族的职业军官 ，母亲是德意志霍尔施坦戈多普王族的公主。1745

年8月，同俄国皇位继承人彼得大公，即后来的彼得三世结婚，改名为叶卡捷琳娜·阿列克

谢耶夫娜。彼得三世执行亲普鲁士方针，损害俄国利益，引起了贵族的不满。1762年7月9

日，叶卡捷琳娜发动宫廷政变，处死了彼得三世，登上了皇位。

叶卡捷琳娜二世在对内政策方面，力图加强贵族官僚的国家机器，扩大贵族特权，维护和

发展农奴制度。60年代，自诩“开明君主”，实行开明专制，同伏尔泰、D.狄德罗等西欧启

蒙思想家保持通信联系。1767年，她召开了新法典编纂委员会，并为这个委员会写了《圣

谕》，标榜法律面前人人平等。镇压普加乔夫起义后，转向公开的反动统治。1775年，颁布

“全俄帝国各省管理体制敕令”，加强了贵族在各地的权力。在被征服的少数民族地区，实行

强制的俄罗斯化政策。1785年颁布《御赐贵族特权诏书》和《御赐城市特权诏书》，使贵族

成为社会上的特权阶级，在一定程度上提高了市民的经济政治地位。在位期间，她将农奴制

度强加给乌克兰人；赐给贵族以大批土地和农奴；先后颁布地主有权放逐农民，农民必须服

从地主的诏书，使农奴制度发展到顶点。

在对外政策方面，为实现其夺取世界霸权的计划，对土耳其发动了两次战争（1768～1779、

1787～1791），打通了黑海口，侵占克里木半岛在内的黑海北岸广大地区。1788～1790年同

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满分网（SAT备考资料） 瑞典进行了战争。伙同普鲁士、奥地利，于1772、1793和1795年3次瓜分波兰。侵占了立

陶宛、白俄罗斯和西乌克兰的大部分土地，置格鲁吉亚为保护国，俄国版图由此扩大了67

万平方千米。1789年法国资产阶级革命爆发后，力图组织反法联盟，积极参与欧洲君主国

镇压法国革命，在俄国历史上开创了干涉欧洲革命的先例，使俄国成为欧洲宪兵。

Catherine II (Catherine the Great) (1729 – 1796)

Empress of Russia (1762-96). Born Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst, on May 2, 1729,

in Stettin, Prussia (now Szczecin, Poland). At the age of 16, she married Grand Duke Peter of

Holstein, the grandson of Peter the Great and the heir to the Russian throne (later Peter III). Their

marriage was an unhappy one, and Catherine (now baptized into the Russian Orthodox Church

under that name) spent much of her time preparing for her future reign and engaging in

extramarital affairs.

Supported by the Russian military, Catherine overthrew Peter III in 1762. Eight days later, Peter

III was assassinated and Catherine was proclaimed empress of Russia under the title Catherine II.

During her 34-year reign, Catherine carried out an energetic foreign policy. She extended the

Russian Empire to the Black Sea as a result of two successful wars against Turkey (which lasted

from 1768-1774 and from 1787-1792), while also bringing about the three partitions of Poland.

Despite pretensions to enlightened ideas, Catherine’s domestic policies achieved little for the mass

of the Russian people, though great cultural advances were made among the nobility. In 1774, she

suppressed the popular rebellion led by Yemelyan Pugachev, and later actively persecuted

members of the progressive-minded nobility.

Catherine’s private life was dominated by a long series of lovers, most notably the Russian field

marshal Grigoriy Potemkin. Catherine died from an unexpected stroke on November 17, 1796, at

the age of 67. She was succeeded by her son Paul.

乔治 华盛顿（1732 -- 1799）

乔治·华盛顿1732年生于美国弗吉尼亚的威克弗尔德庄园。他是一位富有的种植园主之子，

二十岁时继承了一笔可观的财产。1753年到1758年期间华盛顿在军中服役，积极参加了法

国人同印第安人之间的战争，从而获得了军事经验和威望；1758年解甲回到弗吉尼亚，不

久便与一位带有四个孩子的富孀──玛莎·丹德利居·卡斯蒂斯结了婚（他没有亲生子女）。

华盛顿在随后的十五年中经营自己的家产，表现出了非凡的才能，1774年他被选为弗吉尼

亚的一位代表去参加第一届大陆会议时，就已经成为美国殖民地中最大的富翁之一了。华盛

顿不是一位主张独立的先驱者，但是1775年6月的第二届大陆会议（他是一位代表）却一

致推选他来统率大陆部队。他军事经验丰富，家产万贯，闻名遐迩；他外貌英俊，体魄健壮

（身高6英尺2时），指挥才能卓越，尤其他那坚韧不拔的性格使他成为统帅的理所当然的

人选。在整个战争期间，他忠诚效劳，分文不取，廉洁奉公，堪称楷模。

华盛顿于1775年6月开始统率大陆军队，到1797年3月第二届总统任期期满，他的最有意

义的贡献就是在这期间取得的。1799年12月在弗吉尼亚的温恩山，他在家中病逝。华盛顿

是美国第一任总统。美国有一位华盛顿这样德才兼备的人作为第一任总统是幸运的。翻开南

美和非洲各国的历史，我们可以看到即使是一个以民主宪法为伊始的新国家，堕落成为军事

专制国家也是易如反掌。华盛顿是一位坚定的领袖，他保持了国家的统一，但是却无永远把

持政权的野心，既不想做国王，又不想当独裁者。他开创了主动让权的先例──一个至今美

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满分网（SAT备考资料） 国仍然奉行的先例。

Washington, George 1732 -- 1799 （乔治 华盛顿）

First U.S. president. Born February 22, 1732, in Westmoreland County, Virginia. His father, a

prosperous planter and iron foundry owner, died when he was 11, and Washington moved in with

his elder half-brother Lawrence, who owned the plantation Mount Vernon. In 1748 Washington

did some surveying for Lord Fairfax, a relative of Lawrence by marriage, meanwhile reading

widely in Mt Vernon's library. In 1751, he accompanied the ailing Lawrence to Barbados; on his

death the next year, Washington was left guardian of Lawrence's daughter at Mt Vernon, which

Washington would inherit in 1761 after her death.

Having studied military science on his own, in 1753 Washington began several years' service with

the Virginia militia in the French and Indian Wars, taking command of all Virginia forces in 1755

and participating in several dangerous actions. Commissioned as aide-de-camp by General

Edward Braddock in 1755, he barely escaped with his life in the battle that took Braddock's life.

He resigned his commission in 1758, following his election to the Virginia House of Burgesses

(1759--74).

In 1759, Washington married the wealthy widow Martha Custis, thus securing his fortune and

social position. They had no children together but raised her two children, and later her two

grandchildren. After a period of living the sociable life of a gentleman farmer, however,

Washington risked it all by casting his lot with those rebelling against British rule, although his

original motives probably had less to do with high principles and more to do with his personal

annoyance with British commercial policies.

In 1774, Washington participated in the First Continental Congress and took command of the

Virginia militia; by the next year the Second Congress, impressed with his military experience and

commanding personality, made him commander in chief of the Continental army (June 1775).

With remarkable skill, patience, and courage, Washington led the American forces through the

Revolution, struggling not only with the British but with the stingy Continental Congress and also

on occasion with resentful fellow officers. Notable among his achievements were his bold

crossing of the Delaware to rout enemy forces at Trenton on Christmas night of 1776 and his

holding the army together during the terrible winter encampment at Valley Forge in 1777--8. His

victory over the British at Yorktown (1781) effectively ended the war, but for almost two more

years he had to strive to keep the colonists from splintering into selfish enterprises.

Washington returned to Mount Vernon in 1783, but maintained his presence in the debate over the

country's future. He solidified that role when he chaired the Philadelphia Constitutional

Convention of 1787. In 1789, the first electors unanimously voted Washington as president; he

was reelected in 1793. A natural leader rather than a thinker or orator, he had great difficulty

coping with an unruly new government, futilely resisting the growing factionalism that resolved

into the forming of Hamilton's Federalist Party - to which Washington finally gravitated - and

Jefferson's liberal Democratic-Republican Party.

In 1796, Washington announced he would not run again (thus setting a precedent for only two

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满分网（SAT备考资料） terms) and retired from office the next year. In 1798, he accepted command of a provisional

American army when it appeared there would be war with France, but the threat passed. The

following year, Washington died at Mount Vernon and was mourned around the world. He

immediately began to attain almost legendary status, so that succeeding generations throughout

the world could bestow no higher accolade than to call their own national hero, "the George

Washington" of their country.

Key words: first president general

著名事件

青藏铁路

青藏铁路于20xx年6月29日开工，于20xx年7月1日正式通车运营。

青藏高原素有“世界屋脊”、“地球第三极”之称，是我国的“江河源”。在青藏高原这种原始、

独特、脆弱、敏感的地理生态环境中修建的青藏铁路是世界上海拔最高、线路最长的高原铁

路，翻越唐古拉山的铁路最高点海拔5072米，经过海拔4000米以上地段960公里，连续多

年冻土区550公里以上。在青藏铁路建设和施工中有效地保护生态环境，是青藏铁路建设的

重要任务，也是国内外关注的焦点。党中央、国务院对青藏铁路建设的生态环境保护问题极

为重视。朱镕基同志要求一定要认真贯彻国务院有关加强保护青藏高原生态环境的精神，十

分爱护青海、西藏的生态环境，十分爱护青海、西藏的一草一木，精心保护我们祖国的每一

寸绿地。为搞好青藏铁路建设的生态环境保护工作指明了方向。

Qinghai-Tibet railway

The highest railway in the world ,due to begin test runs in July 2006,crosses the famously bleak

Tanggula Pass in western China to connect the Tibetan capital of Lhasa with Golmud in Qinghai.

The highest point of Qinghai-Tibet railway tops 5000m the highest railway. the government says

the railway will bring prosperity to isolated Tibetans. Tibetans say it will serve merely as a means

of carting off the region' s mineral riches and ,perhaps more worryingly, of bringing in soldiers.

Environmentalists, meanwhile, fret about the railway's impact on the fragile ecosystem of the

Tibetan plateau. This is the source of China's five major river systems and home to several rare

species including the Tibetan antelope.

To avoid disturbing the local animal habitation, 25 special routeways are built for wildlife move in

the nature reserves including Keke Xili and Three Rivers Nature Reserve which Qinghai-Tibet

Railway run through, especially for the Tibetan antelopes. These routeways show diversity

according to the habits of Tibetan antelopes. Holes under the railway are for child antelopes

passing by. Even bridges covered with greensward are put up the railway, just like man-made

hillsides for Tibetan antelopes’ migration.

网络病毒的传播

The Spread of Computer Worm

Experts on cyberspace say the much feared code red computer worm continues to spread through

the internet. But so far, the electronic bug that was being considered a global threat to internet

traffic seems to have had little impact.No significant disruptions to traffic on the web have been

reported since the code red bug was unleashed early Wednesday. But experts warn the threat may

be far from over. Bill Jones, the spokesman of California's Keynote Systems, which helps

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满分网（SAT备考资料） businesses with e-commerce. But the FBI says the code red worm is still spreading and has the

potential to infect internet sites and cause significant disruption to traffic on the world wide web.

Bill Jones said, "I would expect that the worm has probably not run its course. I would think that

because it is a geometric progression, as it infects machines and they infect other machines, you

have the opportunity to see a slowdown over time. To have expected something immediately at

0000 UTC Wednesday I think was unrealistic but over the next 24 hours and next few days we

could certainly see a slowdown."

Last month, the worm attacked more than 350,000 computer systems running on Microsoft

operating systems - including the White House website - and prompted the Pentagon to shut down

sites then as well. But it seems that the advice issued by the FBI and cyber industry leaders for

internet users to take precautions may have paid off. So far, more than a million people have

downloaded a so-called patch from Microsoft's website that prevents computers from being

infected.

联合国委员会在禁止克隆人条约上出现分歧

U.N. Committee Split Over Treaty to Ban Human Cloning

The U.S. drive to enact a broad global ban on human cloning has suffered a severe setback at the

United Nations. It also reveals a deep split within the world body on the cloning issue.

The U.S. and Costa Rican proposal calling for drafting an anti-cloning treaty had nearly 50

co-sponsors, and was expected to pass easily. But it is fiercely opposed by many in the scientific

community, who argue there is a need for therapeutic cloning for research and medical purposes.

A rival resolution sponsored by Belgium and supported by Britain, France, and Germany, among

others, would have banned only the cloning of babies. After the vote, Deputy U.S. Representative

James Cunningham said he was disappointed that countries opposing a total ban had used a

technicality to derail the will of a majority of the international community.

"It is particularly regrettable that it was by a margin of only one vote that we will be prevented

from formally registering that more than 100 members of the Untied Nations favor the pursuit of

the goal, of a total ban on human cloning," he said.

The vote effectively puts off for two years any work on drafting an international treaty banning

human cloning. Several European diplomats regretted that the move leaves the issue of cloning in

9)limbo. But one Belgian diplomat told reporters, many who voted no believe it may be better not

to push forward on drafting a comprehensive treaty at a time when the world, and even the

scientific community, is so deeply divided on the question.

一些有识之士自发保护美国河流免受污染

Insightful Men Voluntarily Protect American Rivers From Pollution

James Holland calls himself the eyes and ears of the Altamaha River. The 220 kilometer river he

watches is relatively undisturbed by channels, dredging or major reservoirs. Its swamps and

refuges are home to dozens of rare or endangered plants and animals including some found

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满分网（SAT备考资料） nowhere else on earth.

James Holland has spent a lifetime on the river as a crab fisherman, but blames the decline of

fisheries, and the failure of his business, on poor water quality. Now as an advocate for the

Altamaha, the 60 year old retired crabber responds to reports of erosion, loss of wetlands, and the

illegal dumping of pollutants from agriculture and industry. "I view it as my job to end pollution

where I see it, when I see it, said James Holland"

James Holland finds garbage stashed in tree trunks and pools of diesel fuel and abandoned trucks

at 13)logging operations near the river. A recent complaint on hog waste from a processing plant

in the watershed led him to take a closer look. "In doing so I found the County making

preparations for paving a road," he said. "They were widening it and making improvements. And,

in doing so they destroyed wetlands. They didn't have enough erosion control to prevent erosion. I

went further on from the spray field and from the area where I could view the spray field, the guy

up there was draining wetlands. I found a ditch where he was draining wetlands. I also found right

there standing in one spot where he destroyed two wetlands in the last two or three years. It's just a

whole hot of things. It's unreal is what it is."

While James Holland leads the fight for the Altamaha, he isn't alone. Altamaha Riverkeeper

Executive Director Deborah Sheppard says the group has inspired an increasing number of citizen

volunteers. "And I know we're making a difference because every day people communicate with

us about problems that would not have been addressed if they hadn't talked to us," said Deborah

Sheppard. "And that's probably one of the best things that the River keeper movement has done

around the country is begin the process of helping people understand that if we have a law in place

to protect the environment, we all have a responsibility to help it be enforced."

Riverkeeper James Holland agrees. He sees the Altamaha differently from his days as a crab

fisherman. He says he doesn't think anymore what he can take from the river, but what he can give

back.

中国庆祝入世成功

China Celebrate Its Entry Into WTO

Beijing is hailing a World Trade Organization agreement to admit China to the global trade body.

China's membership, which took 15 years to negotiate, will bring down market barriers and open

up trade with the world's most populous country.

A working party for the 142-member WTO in Geneva agreed Monday to the final terms of China's

entry. WTO trade ministers are expected to adopt the deal at their next round of talks, scheduled

for November in Qatar.

The agreement on Beijing's entry still needs to be approved by China's legislature, but formal

membership is scheduled for early next year. Mr. Zhu said China's membership is an important

strategic goal in the building of the country's socialist market economy. He said China is

committed to fulfilling all of its market-opening commitments.

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满分网（SAT备考资料） Some of the changes China has promised to make under the agreement include: cutting import

tariffs on cars from 100 percent today to 25 percent in five years; cutting duties on agricultural

imports and capping subsidies to farmers; allowing foreign insurance companies to own a hundred

percent of certain operations; and permitting foreign banks to conduct domestic currency business

with Chinese companies in two years.

Chinese leaders expect that WTO entry will step up the pressure on inefficient state firms to

reform, and increase foreign investment in the country. But foreign competition is also likely to

cause much higher unemployment, as state firms lay off millions of workers.

水门事件

Watergate Scandal

Watergate, designation of a major United States political scandal that began with the burglary and

wiretapping of the Democratic Party’s campaign headquarters, later engulfed President Richard M.

Nixon and many of his supporters in a variety of illegal acts, and culminated in the first

resignation of a U.S. president.

The burglary was committed on June 17, 1972, by five men who were caught in the offices of the

Democratic National Committee at the Watergate apartment and office complex in Washington,

D.C. Initially, the break-in garnered little media attention. But persistent investigation by two

reporters for the Washington Post, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, eventually helped uncover

a White House-sponsored plan of espionage against political opponents and a trail of complicity in

attempts to cover up how the burglary was planned and financed. The reporters relied heavily on

anonymous sources, including a key source who became known as Deep Throat. It was not until

2005 that Deep Throat was revealed to be W. Mark Felt, the deputy director of the Federal Bureau

of Investigation (FBI) at the time of the Watergate investigation.

The Post’s reports and those by other newspapers and media outlets eventually pointed to

involvement by many of the highest officials in the land, including former U.S. Attorney General

John Mitchell, White House Counsel John Dean, White House Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman,

White House Special Assistant on Domestic Affairs John Ehrlichman, and President Nixon

himself. On April 30, 1973, nearly a year after the burglary and arrest and following a grand jury

investigation of the burglary, Nixon accepted the resignation of Haldeman and Ehrlichman and

announced the dismissal of Dean. U.S. Attorney General Richard Kleindienst resigned as well.

The new attorney general, Elliot Richardson, appointed a special prosecutor, Harvard Law School

professor Archibald Cox, to conduct a full-scale investigation of the Watergate break-in.

In May 1973 the Senate Select Committee on Presidential Activities opened hearings, with

Senator Sam Ervin of North Carolina as chairman. A series of startling revelations followed. Dean

testified that Mitchell had ordered the break-in and that a major attempt was under way to hide

White House involvement. He claimed that the president had authorized payments to the burglars

to keep them quiet. The Nixon administration vehemently denied this assertion.

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