10.1 The scope of sociolinguistics
?Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.
10.1.1 The relatedness between language and society
?1) While language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships.
?2) Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background.
10.1.1 The relatedness between language and society
?3) To some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon,reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society
?4) Judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic.
10.1.2 Speech community and speech variety
?For general linguistics, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.
?Sociolinguists would define speech community as a group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes toward linguistic norms. ?Speech variety, or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form used by a speaker or a group of speakers.
10.1.3 Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies
?Macro-sociolinguistics (sociolinguistic study of society；语言社会学研究): to look at society as a whole and consider how language functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations, a bird?s view of the languages used in society.
?Micro-sociolinguistics (sociolinguistic study of language；社会语言学研究) is to look at society from the point of view of an individual member within it, or a worm?s-eye view of language in use. 10.2 Varieties of language ?The varieties of a language are the actual manifestations of the general notion of the language and they are assumed to be both related to the language user and to the use to which the language is put. ? dialect（方言） and register（语域）
10.2.1 Dialectal varieties ?Dialectal varieties(dialects): language varieties related to the language users.
10.2.1.1 Regional dialect ?A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. ? English:
?British English American English Canadian English Singapore English
?…
10.2.1.2 Sociolect
?Social-class dialect, or sociolect, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.
10.2.1.2 Sociolect
?Speaker A
?I did it yesterday.
?He hasn?t got it.
?It was she that said it.
?Speaker B
?I done it yesterday.
?He ain?t got it.
?It was her what said it.
10.2.1.2 Sociolect
?Percentage of speakers using [n] for [?]
?Middle middle class 31%
?lower middle class 42%
?Upper working class 87%
?Middle working class 95%
?Lower working class 100%
10. 2. 1.3 Language and gender
(美国英语中女性语体的特征)
?Oh! My dear Mr. Bennet, we have had a most
?excellent ball. …Jane was so admired. Every
?body said how well she looked. Mr. Bingley
?thought her quite beautiful, …I was so vexed to
?see him stand up with her. …I am quite
?delighted with him. He is so excessively
?handsome! …[Mr. Darcy] is a most disagreeable, horrid man. So high and so conceited that there
was no enduring him! He walked here, and he walked there, fancying himself so very great! Not
handsome enough to dance with.
? Pride and Prejudice 10.2.1.4 Language and age
? icebox fridge
? wireless radio boombox
?爹 爸 爹地
10.2.1.5 Idiolect
?Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional,
social, gender, and age variations.
10.2.1.6 Ethnic dialect ?An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly
spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as
racial discrimination or segregation.
?Black English
10.2.1.6 Ethnic dialect
? views on Black English ?bad, poor, uneducated – socially prejudiced
?Black English is just another non-standard variety of English, which differs from standard English
in ways similar to those in which other non-standard varieties of English differ from the standard
variety.
10.2.2 Register（语域）
?Language varies with not only the user but also the use.
?The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.
?Linguistic features are determined by social variables such as the subject matter, the physical setting
of the interaction, the participants, and the medium of communication.
10.2.2 Register（语域）
?Register, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to one?s occupation.
?Halliday?s register theory:
?The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.
?Three social variables that determine the register are field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and
mode of discourse
10.2.2 Register（语域）
?Field of discourse（语场） refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language. It is concerned with the purpose and subject-matter of communication. It answers the questions of ?why? and ?about what? communication takes place.
? Non-technical or technical
10.2.2 Register（语域）
?Tenor of discourse（语旨） refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relation they stand to each other. It answers the question of “to whom the speaker is communicating”.
? formal or informal
10.2.2 Register（语域）
?Mode of discourse（语式） mainly refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out.
? speaking or writing
?The three variables are the features of the context of situation which determine the features of language appropriate to the situation, i.e. register.
10.2.3 Degree of formality
?Language used on different occasions differs in the degree of formality, which is determined by the social variables, e.g. who we are talking with and what we are talking about. ?An American linguist Martin Joos distinguishes five stages of formality, namely, intimate,casual,consultative,formal and frozen.
10.2.3 Degree of formality
?Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the upper floor by way of the staircase. ?Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs at once.
?Consultative: Would you mind going upstairs right away, please?
?Casual: Time you all went upstairs now.
?Intimate: Up you go, chaps.
10.2.3 Degree of formality ?Different styles of the same language can be characterized through differences at three levels, namely, syntactic, lexical and phonological.
10.2.3 Degree of formality
?Passage A
? It has been noted with concern that the stock of books in the library has been declining alarmingly.Students are asked to remind themselves of the rules for borrowing and return of books, and to bear in mind the needs of other students. Penalties for overdue books will in the future be strictly enforced.
10.2.3 Degree of formality
?Passage B
? The number of books in the library has been going down. Please make sure you know the rules for borrowing, and don?t forget that the library is for everyone?s convenience. So from now on, we?re going to enforce the rules strictly. You have been warned.
10.3 Standard dialect ?The standard dialect/variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. ?The standard dialect is a particular variety of a language in that it is not related to any particular group of language users, but it is the variety which any member of a speech community can possibly use regardless of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age.
Standard dialect
?Features of the standard dialect:
?First of all, it is based on a selected variety of the language; usually it is the local speech of an area which considered the nation?s political and commercial center. ?Second, the standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is the variety which is taught and learnt in schools.
?Third, the standard dialect has some special functions.
10.4 Pidgin and Creole
?A pidgin (洋泾浜语/皮钦语 ) is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is
used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.
?When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the
children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole（克里奥
尔语）.
?The English-based Creole of Jamaica
?The French-based Creole of Haiti
10.5 Bilingualism and diglossia
?Monolingualism: the ability to use only one
?language
?Bilingualism: the ability to use two languages
?Multilingualism: the ability to use more than
?two languages
10.5 Bilingualism and diglossia
?In some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role
to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes.This constitutes the situation of
bilingualism（双语制）.
?Code-switching
?The selection of a particular variety (language, dialect, etc.) when speaking, or changing from
one variety to another, or mixing varieties even within sometimes very short utterances.
10.5 Bilingualism and diglossia
?Paraguay: Spanish and Guarani
?Canada: French and English
?Belgium: French and Flemish Dutch
?Four official languages of Singapore: ?English: trade language
?Mandarin Chinese: international language
?Malay: national language
?Tamil: language of an important ethnic group
10.5 Bilingualism and diglossia
?Diglossia（双言制） refers to a situation where two varieties of a language exist side by side
throughout the community , with each having a definite role to play.
?Arabic, Modern Greek, Swiss German and Haitian Creole
?Two varieties: the high variety and the low variety
10.5 Bilingualism and diglossia
?Ferguson gives a sample listing of possible situations and the variety normally used:
?Sermon in church high
?Instruction to servants, waiters,workmen, clerk low ?Speech in parliament, political speech
? high 10.5 Bilingualism and diglossia
?University lectures high
?Conversation with family, friends low
?News broadcast high
?Caption on political cartoon low
?Poetry low
?Folk literature low