the Application of the Constructivism in the middle

school English Writing

构建主义理论在中学英语写作的运用

文献综述

一、前言

写作教学是初中英语教学的重要内容。我们需要从不同角度去研究和探讨适合中国学生的写作模式，英语专家丁往道（1999）写作在英语学习过程中式非常重要的和必不可少的。此外，新课标指出：写作显示学生传递信息和沟通的能力现行初中英语写作教学需要进行改革。初中最重要的教学目标之一就是帮助学生培养基本的写作能力。尽管写作很重要，但是在初中没有得到很好地重视。可以说在中学写作教学中存在“老师传授，学生被动接受”的特点。很明显，这种教学取得效果很小。然而，国外有这样一种很著名很成功的理论---构建主义，实践证明他是一种很好解决写作问题的好方法。在全球性的教育改革及我国新课改的背景下，如何更好运用构建主义在写作教学中式很有必要的。所以本文通过分析初中英语写作教学的现状，运用构建主义理论来指导进行写作教学的策略。

二、我国目前初中英语写作的现状

对照≤英语课程标≥对写作的要求，分析目前初中写作的现状包括教学和学生的。教学的问题主要教师由于受中国传统的教学影响，重视词汇和语法教学，没有一个系统的写作计划，对学生写作的能力培养不够重视，课堂上忽视对学生写作的思维和技能的训练和指导；此外还存在忽视对学生的客观评价只是针对学生的写作结果，没有特别重视学生的写作过程。而学生的问题主要体现在受传统思维的影响，作文出现“Chinglish”，基础语法错误很多，词汇相对较缺乏，文章内容很单调枯燥。

还有吴道存的≤如何是英语教学更有趣--关于英语教学的专家之见≥明确指出；上写作课是很有价值的，教师和学生都会受益匪浅，因为运用语言的过程就是对英语水平的体现。可是目前多数老师的教学存在一个很大的弊端：只是强调教师的“教”而忽视学生的“学”，全部教学工作都是围绕如何“教”而开展，很少涉及学生如何“学”的问题。教师按照这样的理论进行课堂教学，学生参与教学活动的机会很少，大部分时间在课堂上只有教学一个人在唱独角戏，而学生是处于被动的状态。

二 构建主义的教学观和学习观

美国当代学家（Von Glasemfield）认为：“知识不是被动的吸收，而是认知主体主动构建。”（Von Glasemfield，1995）这意味着学习是主动的，学习者不是被动的刺激接受者，他要对外部信息做主动的选择和加工，新、旧经验发生冲突从而引发观念的转变和结构的重组。 构建主义强调学习不是由教师向学生的传递，而是学生主动构建自己知识的过程，学习者不是被动的刺激接受者，而是对自己知识结构的主动构建者。正如

陈琦的≤构建主义学习观要义评析≥ 中指出：学习过程并不是简单信息的输入、储存和提取，而是新旧经验之间的双向的互相作用过程。同化是指学习者将外在信息纳入已有的认知结构，以丰富和加强已有的思维倾向和行为的模式。顺应是指学习者原有的认知结构与新的外在信息产生冲突，而引发原有认知结构的调整和变化，进而建立新的认知结构的过程。同化是人之结构的量变，而顺应是认知结构的质变。

许捷≤论构建主义学习观≥学习就是一个同化、顺义、再同化、再顺应的循环反复的过程。

三 教师在写作中角色定位

在传统的教育中，教师和学生在教育内容上是接受与被接受的关系。而构建主义理论则通过对教师和学生角色的定位，对传统的师生关系提出了挑战。它要求教师更新自己的教育观念和教育行为，从高高的讲台上坐下来，与学生建立平等的师生关系，为学生创设自由发展的空间：成为激发学生求知欲望的启迪者、学习方法的指导者、道德行为的引导者；从“教师带着知识走向学生”的教学模式中走出来，转变为“教师带着学生走向知识”。平等、民主、和谐的新型师生关系不仅是构建主义理论提出的要求，同时也是顺利实施新课程改革的根本保证。 伊青梅的≤“支架”理论在CAI英语教学写作中的应用≥指出 教师仅仅是支架的提供者，是为了给学生以支持和鼓励、提示和辅助。教师的作用就如同教学生走路，最终还要靠学生自己的力量完成学习任务，教师不能代替他走路和思考，教师要做的是在互动过程中对学生的思维方式、解决问题的策略进行分析，及时提供适当的支持和辅助，让学生成为独立自主的学习者。教师的角色定位对写作教学结果影响很大。教师参与整个写作过程，在不同的写作阶段，有针对性地对学生进行指导，帮助学生及时发现问题，解决问题，引导学生顺利完成整个写作的过程。教师应帮助学生监控与调节自己的学习，包括学习过程、学习内容，以及学习计划的实施情况等

四 构建主义的理论在写作中的运用策略

刘道义的≤Beginning to Write ≥说明：写作不能仅仅理解成个人的行为，因此在教学中不宜总是采取学生单独出来写作文让教师批改的模式，而应该提倡学生以”合作交流，互相信任“的态度进行互相交流，评阅，修正错误，做到取长补短，共同提高。在训练过程中适当穿插读、听、说活动，要把听、说、读、写四种技能有机地结合起来

肖远军的≤教育评价原来与应用≥中指出：档案袋里可有问卷调查、自我评价、阶段性自我评价、阶段性同伴评价、进步卡、阶段性预期目标及自认为最优秀的作品等等，针对不同的时段和不同层次的学生选择恰当的评价表进行评价。 在传统的评价中，测试对学生而言具有相当的神秘性，从标准的制定、试题的选择知道分数的评判，学生完全被隔离在外，学生没有“权利”参加这些活动，只有被动地接受老师的评价结果。档案袋评价与此截然不同，它主要考察学生运用所学知识取得的成就，学生成为选择档案袋内容的一个决策者，从而拥有了判断自己水平和进步的机会

四、总结

今天在初中已经实行教学改革。尽管在我们国家构建主义理论在中国实行已

经有一段时间，实践证明它作为向导与中国目前的教学改革保持一致。构建主义理论有远大的发展前景。在今后这种理论会在初中写作教学中被广泛的接受。为了建设社会主义，这种理论为我们提供了实现这一目标的可行性策略，在英语写作教学的启示和借鉴，具有重要的功能。英语教学的目的是培养具有自我学习，反思，创新与合作能力的高素质人才，而恰恰正好这种理论有这种参考的功能。

George W. Gargnon , Jr.&Michelle Collay, Constructivist Learning Design London: Longman, 2008

Von Glasemfield, EA constructivist approach to teaching (A).Constructivism in education(C).Lawrence Erlibraum Associates Publisher, 1995

Vygotsky. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Process. Harward University Press, 1978

布鲁纳. 昭瑞珍等译. 教育过程. 北京： 文化出版社，1982

丁往道. 英语写作手册. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社

何克抗. 构建主义的教学模式、教学方法与教学设计[A].课程与教学理论. 北京：北京师范大学出版社，2002

李小红. 增强学生用英语思维和写作的意识[J].中国英语教学，2001（1） 李永军. 语境--英语教学之本[J].现代中小学教育，2005（5）：30-32 .利用反馈提高学生外语写作水平.外语教育与研究。2012（2）

第二篇：英语毕业论文开头文献回顾写法

摘要常用句型：

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This article focuses on the topics of…

This thesis discusses/analyzes…

This paper provides/gives an overview of…

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summarizes，evaluates，surveys，develops， investigates，discusses，focuses on，?)the results of?

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范例：

提纲式摘要：

转喻视角下汉语旧词新义的词汇语用意义演变研究

作为一种普遍的语言现象,新词也越来越受到语言学家的关注。不少研究从新词的定义、来源、分类、特点及其与社会、文化的关系等角度展开了讨论,但却较少论及语义演变的深层机制。在日常的语言交际中,新词的词义往往会脱离

其原义,产生新的语用意义。本文以新词中的旧词新义的词汇语用意义演变为研究对象,以认知转喻为理论框架,探讨旧词新义词汇语用意义的转喻表现及转喻阐释。所采取的研究方法是基于一定语料的定性分析。 本文共分六章。 第一章为引言,介绍相关研究现状、研究理据、研究对象及研究方法。 第二章为理论框架部分,介绍认知转喻的概念。重点介绍同一理想认知模式中的转喻类型。 第三章讨论了汉语新词词汇语用意义演变生成模式转喻表现。 第四章以新词“山寨”为例,山寨词义演变的各阶段进行转喻阐释。 第五章以本研究关于转喻理论对新词词汇语用意义演变阐释的探讨,对新词释义有启示作用。 第六章为结语部分,得出结论,指出本研究存在的问题,并指出后续研究的发展方向。 综上所述,本文为汉语新词的词汇语用意义演变研究提供了新的视角。认知转喻理论对词汇语用意义的阐释丰富和完善了词汇语用学的研究范围,对未来词汇语用学的研究方向有一定的启示作用。

杰克·伦敦与《马丁·伊登》：美国梦的追寻与幻灭；相关理论及艺术手法探究 杰克·伦敦(1876-1916)是美国现代多产作家,是美国文学史上著名的现实主义小说家之一。其小说塑造了众多形象鲜明的人物,其中以马丁·伊登的塑造最为突出,最为成功。《马丁·伊登》是作者根据自己的亲身体验塑造,其主人公马丁·伊登这一超人般的艺术形象,是作家的“自画像”,是一曲知识分子的精神悲剧。实际上,马丁·伊登一生的追求,奋斗,受挫,成功,幻灭全部都折射着作家自己的人生历程。 本文通过对杰克·伦敦和马丁·伊登的比较,分析作家最后悲剧的原因以及其美国梦从实现到幻灭的过程,从而折射当时美国社会的人们为了实现梦想所做的努力及在努力的过程中所遭受的痛苦。并通过相关理论解析作者及主人公的精神信仰。 “美国梦”源于殖民主义时期,其代表人物为本杰明·富兰克林。在富兰克林之后,“美国梦”成为美国民众心中无法抹去的情节。他们相信,只要通过努力就可以获得自己想要的东西,取得成功。正如我们所熟知的小说《喜福会》,就是反映美国梦这个主题。然而美国梦在与现实发生冲突时就会造成幻想在现实面前破灭。本文所分析的作品正是如此。 本文共分为五个部分,第一章介绍作者生平及其主要作品。第二章文献综述及对小说《马丁·伊登》进行简单的概括。第三章对主人公美国梦的存在及幻灭进行分析,讨论其幻灭的原因。第四章通过斯宾塞的相关理论分析马丁·伊登及杰克·伦敦的精神信仰及对《马丁·伊登》中运用的自然主义和现实主义艺术手法及相关理论进行探讨。第五章为结论部分。

内容式摘要：

学习策略和学习风格的相关性———基于大学英语学习者的研究

作为个体差异研究的热点话题之一，学习策略和学习风格与“个性化学习”密不可分，已经引起语言学家和语言教师的广泛关注。但在过去的研究中，学习策略和学习风格通常是作为两个不同的方向分开探讨，很少有人注意到它们之间是否具有某种内在的相关性。本文着眼于这种相关性，并将二语成绩作为衡量标准，通过网络调查问卷，发现学习风格与二语成绩之间无相关性、学习策略与二语成绩之间存在弱相关性、学习策略与学习风格之间有较强的相关性。这些发现能为策略培训和“个性化学习”提供借鉴意义。

论英汉文化背景下的习语翻译

著名翻译学家奈达指出:“对于真正成功的翻译而言，熟悉两种文化甚至比掌握两种语言更为重要，因为词语只有在其作用的文化背景下才有意义。 ”也就是说，翻译不仅与语言有关也和文化有关。习语翻译 中对文化差异的研究在中国的翻译领域中仍然较弱，专门对中英习语翻译的研究还不很完善。近 20 年

来， 习语翻译大多强调语际的交流，而很少涉及文化差异。本文通过分析中英习语的文化差异，进而从文化角 度研究中英习语翻译方法，并指出中英习语翻译要注意的问题:联系上下文，选择与原文风格，意思相符的 翻译；文化是一种生活方式，文化在变化，出现新的习语，习语翻译要与时俱进。

关键词：习语；文化；

“夹缝人”的思考———浅析《卢布林的魔术师》

和《所罗门之歌》的“回归”主题

少数族裔的处境问题是当今许多少数族裔作家所关注的焦点。犹太裔作家艾萨克·巴什维斯·辛格和非裔作家托尼·莫里森在其各自的长篇代表作《卢布林的魔术师》和《所罗门之歌》中着重探讨了种族的未来出路问题。本文试从身份 回归、文化传统回归、人性回归三方面印证两部作品中的回归主题，阐释只有认同民族身份，复归民族精神传统，才会找到最终的生存价值。

关键词:《卢布林的魔术师》; 《所罗门之歌》; 回归

中介理论在高校英语教师中的运用情况调查与分析

根据学者们以往关于教师中介作用的调查研究发现：教师的中介角色意识与行为不一致，教师中介角色与学生需求存在一定差距。 为了进一步明确教师的中介角色，本文更侧重于从学生评价和反馈方面出发，运用费厄斯坦编制的师生调查问卷和自制的学生访谈，来更好地反映学生对教师具体实施中介作用的看法和反馈，以期对中介理论在高校教师中的有效实施提供依据。

关键词： 中介理论； 中介角色； 教师；

文化差异对翻译的影响及对策

翻译是一种跨文化的语言转换活动，因此翻译要受原语和译语两种文化的影响。文化的差异导致了不同民族之间不同的思维心理和表达习惯。因此，在翻译过程中．译者要充分考虑并理解不同民族之间的文化差异．避免因文化差异产生的翻译问题。本文将通过对英汉语中的色彩、习语等词汇的异同点进行比较，利用符号学的理论，分析在翻译过程中文化差异带来的意义的差异和影响，以及探讨涉及文化背景差异的信息的翻译对策。

引言

举例：

1 Introduction

When mentioning face, everyone is very familiar with it. However, there are not so many people who can express clearly what face is, since it is so abstract, neither can be seen, nor can be touched. Then what is face on earth? Lin Yutang, an outstanding writer and translator in China gave a vivid description of face. He argued, “Face cannot be translated or defined. It is like honor and is not honor. It cannot be purchased with money, and gives a man or a woman a material pride. It is hollow and is what a man or a woman die for. It is invisible and yet by definition exists by being shown to the public” (qtd. in Liu Liru: 19). However, many scholars, both at home and abroad, have given some definitions of face. It was Hu Xianjin, a Chinese anthropologist who first brought his definition of face to western countries. He discovered that there were two types of face in China, “lian” and “mian-zi”. “?lian? represents the confidence of society in the integrity of ego?s moral character, loss of which makes it impossible for him to function properly within the community, while ?Mian-zi? stands for the kind of prestige that is emphasized, a reputation achieved

through getting on in life, through success and ostentation” (qtd. in Liu Jing: 123). According to Goffman (1955), who laid the foundation for the research of this field, “face” is a kind of positive social value that people tries to win for themselves in social communication and it is a kind of self-image that is shown by individuals according to the admiring standard of society (qtd. in Liu Xin 15: 22). Brown and Levinson expanded and explained Goffman?s theory by saying that face is “the public self-image that every member wanted to claim for himself or herself” (qtd. in Liu Liru:

22). Face, in this sense, is a universal phenomenon which all people have and desire to maintain and even try to get more. The most influential study about face was pointed out by Stella Ting-Toomey in 1988. She concluded that face is “a projected image of one?s self in a relational situation” and later “the claimed sense of favorable social self-worth and the estimated other-worth in an interpersonal situation” (215). So in conclusion, face refers to self-awareness and social assessment of one?s value elements both outside such as one?s appearance, living environment, etc and inside such as one?s dignity, reputation, etc.

Most studies on face can be classified into three main categories. First, studies on face as a prevalent concept in all cultures (noted by Goffman, 1955, 1967; Brown and Levinson, 1978, 1987; Ting-Toomey, 1988 ,1998; etc). Second, studies on face as a cultural phenomenon. For instance, Chinese face perceptions have been studied by scholars all over the world (Smith, 1894; Lin, 1936; Ho, 1976; Ge, 1998; Jia, 1997, 1998;etc). Third, comparative studies on face between Western cultures and Eastern cultures have been conducted by some scholars (Ho, 1976; Hartzell, 1988; Hu and Cornelius, 1991; Ting-Toomey, 1999; Dong and Li, 2003, etc). It is well-known that communication plays a more and more significant role in every field of world affairs. In any interpersonal communication situation, it is of great importance for an individual to understand clearly his or her partner?s face needs. How the face of a person from another cultural background is respected or threatened plays a very important part in interpersonal relationships. Because western cultures are different from Chinese ones, people tend to hold their own understanding about face when communicating with each other. That is why we need to understand face in order to cope with any potential face threatening act, or conflicts so that it is possible for people to reach a successful inter-cultural communication. Therefore, this thesis aims to analyze the distinctions of face perception between Chinese cultures and western cultures.

In the following parts, the thesis first describes the theoretical framework, including the definitions of face, roles of face and explanations for face differences. Then, it puts emphasis on the contrast between Chinese face and Western face from the aspect of meaning, recognition, extension and speech act. After that it presents the root-causes of these differences, including history, values and thinking mode. Lastly, some conclusions are drawn in this paper.

文献回顾

举例：

2 Literature Review

Face perception has been studied in a variety of fields, such as anthropology,

psychology, philosophy, culture, communication, etc. At present, scholars both at home and abroad mainly concentrate their studies on the definitions of face, the roles of face and the differences of face in Chinese and Western cultures.

2.1 Definitions of Face

It is quite a long time since “face” was considered to be a crucial factor in interpersonal communication, but a perfect definition of face has not been reached. Most of the scholars in this field have tried to give their own definition of face. However, as cultures differ from country to country, face is defined according to different cultures.

In China, face is a significant element in everyday life of its people, so it has attracted great attention of many people who have made great contributions to this field. Actually, its long history of more than five thousand years endows the concept of face with more complexity and multiplicity. American missionary Arthur Smith identified Chinese face as “a key to the combination lock of many of the most important characteristics of the Chinese” in his book Chinese Characteristics first published in 1890. So he thought although face played a very important role in Chinese social life, but the concept of face was beyond people?s comprehension and it was extremely difficult to explain (17). Then Hu Xianjin (1944), a Chinese anthropologist discovered that face in China could be classified into two types, “lian” and “mian-zi” (qtd. in Liu Jing: 123). Hwang (1997) thinks that face is a power game in China (8). Jia (1997) insists that face is interpersonal identity which occurs in the process of human communication but is easily being ignored by people (43-61). King (1998) compares face functions to a credit card, whose best state is in balance.

In western countries, people don?t consider face as important as it is in China. That?s why few scholars have clearly pointed out what the concept of face is in western countries. Hartzell (1988) noticed that some incidents can be related to face perception in some western countries. For example, uncountable possessions, expensive clothing and attention to the speaker in a meeting can enhance one?s face, while getting drunk and acting some indecent behaviors in public can lose face (89). Then Barnlund (1989) suggests that the United States is a horizontal country in which any intrusion on an individual?s right is unwarranted, so it can be inferred that the Americans pay more attention to individual right than face (78). Hu and Grove (1991) also emphasized that in the United States, individual integrity is considered extremely important, therefore, loss of face causes only personal embarrassment but not personal integrity or group integrity (qtd. in Liu Liru :24).

Above all, all the definitions can reflect some parts of face but a perfect definition has not been given.

2.2 Roles of Face

Face is an important element in any communication situation. Whether face needs are fully concerned or not will have great impact on the consequence of communication. So the roles of face showed in interpersonal communication should be noticed.

Smith (1894), Wang (1988), Sun (1997) and many other scholars believe that face is one of the key Chinese personal features and even China?s national character.

Further, Jia (1997) points out that besides an individual?s identity, there is still another identity that has long been neglected—interpersonal identity, which is usually called “mian-zi” (43-61). Yong (1994) argues, “Face goes deep to the core of a Chinese person?s identity and integrity and Chinese regard one?s ideas as entangled with one?s identity or sense of personal worth; an attack on one?s ideas is therefore an attack on one?s self, or more specifically, one?s face” (qtd. in Liu Liru: 14). Jia (2001) also notes that face has helped to constitute and maintain the Chinese identity and the destiny of Chinese culture (76). Therefore, face is a key element in constituting and maintaining identity.

In a study of middle-level business executives in Hong Kong, Redding and Ng (1982) note, “Strong feelings of satisfaction, pride, and enhanced confidence are associated with gaining face, whereas strong negative feelings of shame, worry, uneasiness, anxiety, and tension, difficulty in concentrating on work, and symptoms such as blushing are related to losing face (qtd. in Liu Liru: 15). Carbaugh (1994) states in his cultural communication model that face also involves some personal feelings which are expressed in the following phrases, giving mianzi, earning mianzi, rewarding mianzi and saving mianzi (17-45). Jia (2001) concluded that “lian/mian can be regarded as a practical concept consisting of both emotions and social actions, which can be called emotive actions or active emotions” (26). Thus, face has great relation with emotions.

According to the research achievement of cross-cultural researchers, “facework” is a prevalent concept that exists in all cultures. Brown and Levinson (1978) argue that each social being has basic face wants, and every body knows other?s desires, so they try to work together to maintain each other?s face. And facework is “the actions taken to deal with the face-wants of one or the other” (qtd. in Liu Liru: 16). Ting-Toomey describes facework as “an artful process of diffusing and managing self-focused emotions and other-focused emotions and specific verbal and nonverbal messages that help to maintain and restore face loss, and to uphold and honor face gain” (190). So during conflict, facework functions a lot, alleviating or aggravating a conflict, protecting or damaging one?s image and so forth.

2.3 Explanations for Face Differences

Most of the scholars in this field try to explain the differences of face between Eastern countries and Western countries in cultural context. Generally speaking, there are following three explanations stated by them.

Firstly, the contrast of individualism and collectivism has long been considered a major factor to explain the differences. According to Ting-Toomey (1996), individualistic cultures focus more on self-face concern and maintenance while collectivistic cultures divide their emphasis on self-face, other-face and mutual face-concerns (190). Secondly, when talking about face issues, Ting-Toomey also uses low-context and high-context as one of the important explanations (102). Edward T. Hall (1976) suggests that a high-context communication is “one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message” (79). On the contrary, a low-context communication is “the mass of information which is vested in the explicit

code” (20). According to Hall (1983) and Ting-Toomey (1985), “a low context communication prefers an individual value orientation, linear logic, direct verbal interaction, and an individualistic nonverbal style. The high context communication prefers a group value orientation, spiral logic, indirect verbal interaction and a contextual nonverbal style (qtd. in Liu Liru: 8). Thirdly, in studying face issues, Ting-Toomey and Oetzel identify self-construal as one of the significant elements to explain the differences of face (197).

Based on the preceding theoretical foundations, this paper aims at exploring the specific differences in face perception in Chinese and Western cultures from the aspect of meaning, recognition, extension and speech act, which are different from the general findings achieved by the previous scholars.