1、文化传播：文化传播是人类特有的各种文化要素传递扩散和迁移继传的现象，是各种文化资源和文化信息在时间和空间中的流变、共享、互动和重组，是人类生存符号化和社会化的过程，是传播者的编码和解读者的解码互动阐释的过程，是主体间进行文化交往的创造性的精神活动。

2、（填空）本书将“传播”定义为：信息的传递、交流和共享过程，以及通过信息流动所达成的社会文化互动。

3、哈罗德·拉斯韦尔、库尔特·卢因、保罗·拉扎斯菲尔德和卡尔·霍夫兰是传播学四大奠基人。

4、拉斯韦尔明确提出传播过程的五个要素（5W经典模式:传播者—讯息—媒介—受众—效果）和传播三大功能（监听社会环境、协调社会关系、传承社会遗产），奠定了传播学研究的基本范围和层面。对传播学的贡献还有：开创了内容分析方法，并将弗洛伊德的精神分析理论引入美国社会科学。

5、卢因：最早提出了社会心理学中的场论和群体动力论

6、拉扎斯菲尔德：他主张将传播媒介置于完整的社会环境中考虑到。

7、霍夫兰：是个体差异论的提出者，他的研究成果被认为是现代态度改变研究的开端。

8、传播媒介的历史进程：口头传播（希腊神话，荷马史诗）；文字传播（象形文字）；印刷传播（古登堡的《圣经》）；电子传播（网络）

9、文化形态的历史嬗变：一，口头传播：诗性的言说，二印刷文化：古登堡的银河系三电子文化：重新部落化。

10、麦克卢汉认为三种主导媒介，即口头媒介、印刷媒介和电子媒介的演进，导致了“部落化—非部落化—中心部落化”的历史图式

11、符号：是文化传播的基因和代码，是文化传播的媒介和载体，是文化传播的基础。

12、符号的构成要素主要体现为三个特征：一是代表事物的形式，二是被符号指涉的对象，三是对符号的意义解释。也可以表述为媒介关联物、对象关联物和解释关联物～

13、符号的能指和所指：能指是符号的物质形式，表现为一种声音或图像，能够引发人们的某种概念的联想；所指则是那个联想到的概念。

14、神话（罗兰·巴尔特）：是指一个社会构造出来以维持和证实自身的存在的各种意象和信仰的复杂系统

15、意义：是人给对象事物赋予的含义，是人类以符号形式传递和交流的精神内容

16、媒介现实：我们通常所接触到的媒介内容都是一种表征，他们是加工过的、用符号构建的某种东西，而我们正事通过这些媒介表征来认知这个世界。

17、消费的象征性、符号性的两层含义：一是消费的象征—消费表达和传递了包括个人的地位、身份、个性、品味、情趣和认同的意义和符号，消费过程不但是满足人的基本需要，而且现代人社会表现和社会交流的过程；二是象征的消费—不但消费商品本身，而是消费这些商品所象征或代表的某种文化社会意义，包括个人的心情、美感、档次、身份、地位、氛围、气派、气氛、情调，具有文化再生产或消费情绪、欲求的再生产特征。

18、进化论学派：1.泰勒（人类学之父）的文化进化论观点

2．摩尔根的文化进化论观点

19、传播论学派：1.德奥历史传播学派（拉策尔、弗罗贝纽斯?文化圈?、格雷布内尔、施密特） 2.英国极端传播学派?里弗斯，史密斯?埃及中心论?，佩里?太阳子之论?)

20、政治学视野中的传播功能：拉斯韦尔从政治学角度将传播学的基本社会功能归纳为，监视社会环境、协调社会关系、传承社会遗产。

21、社会学事业下的传播功能：拉扎斯菲尔德和默顿提出大众传媒具有三大社会功能，一是社会地位授予功能，二是社会规范强制功能，三是麻醉精神的消极功能。

22、整合：（社会整合）指的是社会的各个部分、各个环节、各种要素通过互相兼容、彼此协调和不断重组，逐渐发展成为一个体系完整、结构平衡、功能稳定的有机整体的过程。

23、☆文化传播对社会整合的促进作用，主要表现在哪些方面?1文化传播能协调社会关系（一方面通过文化传播活动来进行各种社会交往，促进促进成员的相互沟通，另一方面，当社会的内外环境发生变化时，

文化传播可以通过信息的解释、舆论的引导、观点的说服、意见的沟通等方式，聚合社会成员达到最大限度的理解和共识，进而促进他们对环境采取一致、有效的行动，以实现社会各个部门协调统一的目的）；2文化传播可以强化社会规范（任何社会要保持良性运行和发展，都离不开个体成员对各种社会规范的共同认可与遵循。在这种维持社会秩序的过程中，文化传播活动成为强化社会规范的非正式的有效手段）；文化传播推动实现社会控制（实现对人的文化行为的控制，使人的思想与行为都纳入稳定的社会规范体系之内，从而维持社会有机体的平衡和稳定）；文化传播促进形成社会认同（在社会化的过程中，个体不断发展出的最重要的认同形式之一，就是对所属群体的社会认同）；

24、人的全面发展：就是人的社会关系的全面发展，是人的社会交往的普遍性和人对社会关系的控制程度的高度发展。

25、媒介素养：就是指人面对媒介各种信息时的选择能力、理解能力、质疑能力、评估能力、创作和制作能力及思辨的反应能力。

26、德国法兰克福学派的大众文化理论：

核心人物：霍克海默、阿多诺、马尔库塞、本雅明

内容：第一作为文化工业的“产品”，大众文化与大量生产的产品一样，具有商品化、标准化和大众化的特点。第二，大众文化还承载着一般工业产品所不具备的功能—充当传播意识形态的载体，为现存的资本主义制度提供合法性，并努力将个体整合到大众文化和社会的体制中。

局限:他们的批判局限在意识和精神领域，而缺乏实践性。另外，该学派对于高雅文化和低俗文化的划分也是有问题的，他们认为一切大众文化都是意识形态化的，低劣的，具有欺骗被动的消费大众的效应，还忽略了大众的主观能动性，

27、英国伯明翰学派的大众文化理论：

代表人物:威廉斯，霍家特，霍尔，汤普森，费斯克

内容:(在法兰克福学派批判理论的基础上,阐明了媒体与传播在现代社会中的地位与作用，突出了文化的意识形态在媒体和传播研究中的中心地位。研究采用文本分析和受众分析，纠正了法兰克福学派低估受众作用和忽略受众接受的倾向，)

费斯克的大众文化理论主要体现的两个方面:第一，大众观念和大众文化的产生。第二，大众文化的两种经济理论金融经济和文化经济

缺陷：遗漏了对文化产品生产过程中所聚集的政治经济和文化等因素的思考和分析，以及大众是如何通过其社会关系而形成的反思，也没有思考文化本身到底在多大程度上有助于产生大众及其对大众文化产品的接受。

28、大众文化的几个特征：第一，大众文化的商品性(大众文化是伴随着文化工业的大量生产和大量销售而出现的)第二，大众文化的通俗性(大众文化不是特定阶层的文化，而是社会上散在众多的一般个人的文化，代表着广大的、处于社会中下层的群体)第三，大众文化的流行性(时尚文化，通过象征性资本的创造形成消费的热潮和时尚)第四大众文化的娱乐性(追求娱乐、享受快乐是大众最本能的需求)第五大众文化的依赖性(大众传媒技术)

29、信息环境：指的是一个社会中由个人或群体接触到的信息及其传播活动所构成的环境。

30、大众文化的传播特点：(1)大众文化是有组织的传播活动(大众文化是一种大众传播过程形成的文化形态，其传播者与大众传播的传播者具有一致性，是有组织的传播媒体)(2)大众文化：象征性权利的创造(大众传媒媒介运用大众传播技术制造和传播论具有象征性权利的大众文化)(3)大众文化是一种多媒介合力形成的传播活动(大众传播活动中涉及的传播媒介有报纸、广播、电视和网络。)(4)大众文化形成整体的社会文化氛围(大众传播可以先改变社会文化，从而间接地实现对受众的改变)

31、消费主义：从经济学角度看，消费主义是与现代化发展尤其是工业化、城市化发展相伴而生的一种消费模式，一种以满足人们超出基本生活需求以外的欲求为特征的大众消费模式；从社会学层面讲，是这种新的消费模式向社会各方面渗透而出现的一种文化态度、价值观念和生活方式。

32、消费主义的主要特征：(更注重对商品象征意义的消费(消费文化))第一，消费大众成为主体；第二，消

费行为主要是体验消费；第三，消费对象并非是物质产品本身，而是符号化的物品所具有的文化意义。

33、拉斯维尔的5W模式奠定了传播学研究的五大基本内容，即控制分析、内容分析、媒介分析、受众分析、效果分析，以及大众传播三大基本功能监视功能、协调社会以及文化传承

34、受众的本位与分化：一，受众研究的总体轮廓：从靶子式的被动到主动；二，受众的传播细节；三受众文化分析：对受众文化类别的揭示。

35、文化传播的社会图景理论：议程设置、沉默的螺旋、培养理论、知购理论

36、议程设置(科恩)：就是大众传媒为受众精心选择重大问题或事件，构建一个个焦点，作为受众日常生活中讨论和关注的对象。

37、议程设置的特点：1以不同的力度影响人们的认知、态度、和行动三个层面。2议程设置的主体是个体和集群的散点统一体。3议程设置实质上为人们展示了其生存时空中的文化图景。

38、在网络背景下，议程设置效果发生了一些变化：一是功能实现的顺序发生了变化，由原来的媒介议程-公众议程-政治议程转换成公众议程-媒介议程-政策议程。二是议程设置的主体发生了变化，由媒介主体变化成大众主体。

39、沉默的螺旋：(伊丽莎白·诺埃尔·纽曼)在大众传播的巨大压力下，保持沉默的人久而久之会越来越少，赞同主流意见的人越来越多，其变化过程如同一个上大下小的螺旋，这就是著名的沉默的螺旋理论。

40、沉默的螺旋的特点:其特点一是对舆论的关注，二是对社会心理的关注，是对传播强效果的关注。

41、沉默的螺旋的模式:揭示的是舆论如何形成的问题，即大众传播、人际传播与个人对自己关于社会中其他人的看法的理解这三者之间相互作用形成舆论。

42、沉默的螺旋理论在网络背景下依然适用，只是其内在机理、发生过程及表现方式有些变化而已。

43、培养理论(格伯纳)：电视文化可以涵养、建构受众的世界观。换句话说，电视实际上主宰和包容了其他信息、观念和意识的来源，这些内容培养了受众共同的世界观、共同的角色观和共同的价值观。

44、培养理论的内涵是指对受众世界观、人生观、价值观的形成进行潜移默化的影响，外延：是指概念所反映的事物的范围。

45、知沟理论：(蒂奇诺)当一个社会体系中的信息流增长时，那些收获较好教育、具有较高社会经济地位的人们，将比受教育较少、地位较低的人们能更好的吸收信息。

46、葛兰西的霸权分为政治霸权和文化霸权前者是相对于政治社会或国家而言的，后者相对于市场社会而言的，主要表现为教化关系。

47、文化工业:一是为了强调大众文化的意识形态性，二是强调一切文化都变成了商品。

48、(哈贝马斯)公共领域与交往行为理论。

49、后现代主义：鲍德里亚的主要观点是关于仿真的论述一，从文艺复兴到工业革命时期，仿造是文化秩序的主导形式，二在工业化时代，生产是文化秩序的主导形式，三在当代符号繁衍扩展时代，仿真是文化秩序的主导形式。

50、费斯克与积极的大众:首先，费斯克认为大众并不是一个单质的整体,而是包含了各种由于利益关系、政治立场和社会联系所形成的群体，是一个复杂多元的组合。其次，大众文化要在广大的人群中流行，就必须适应复杂和多元的需要，因此它自身也就必须是复杂和多元的。第三，他认为大众文化的解读中，受众是具有抵抗意识的，正是这种抵抗与回避使得主流意识形态苦苦挣扎，坚持不懈地保留自己及其价值。

51、三种假想的受众解码地位：第一个假想的地位是：主导-霸权的地位即占主导统治地位的立场。第二个地位是协商代码或者地位。第三种立场是对抗代码。

52、马歇尔.麦克卢汉的媒介即讯息的四个理论：

53、长尾理论：长尾的核心内容为:只要存储和流通的渠道足够大，需求不旺或销量不佳的产品共同占据的市场份额就可以和那些数量不多的热卖品所占据的市场份额相匹敌甚至更大。

54、文化产业：为社会公众提供文化、娱乐产品和服务的活动，以及与这些活动有关联的活动的集合。

55、文化产业、创意产业、内容产业：文化产业侧重于产业形态的文化特征，创意产业侧重于产业的创造性特征，内容产业则侧重于产业的内涵特征。从三者的产业价值链来看，也有不同的侧重点。例如文化产

业和创意产业，从文化产业的内部结构看，文化产业的组织形态是一条完整的从生产到消费的产业链。而创意产业是由价值链定律来完成。在价值链的连接中，创意产业始终处于文化产业的上游。

56、文化产业的特征：1.商业属性与意识形态属性的二元合一2.创新属性与复制属性的二元合一3.集群属性与关联属性的二元合一。

57、文化事业与文化产业:即公益性的文化事业和经营性的文化产业，前者主要包括教育、自然科学和哲学社会科学的学术研究、图书馆博物馆等公益性事业，根本特点是原创性和公益性；后者包括以劳动形式出现的文化服务行业如演出、策划等，向其他商品和行业提供文化附加值的行业如形象设计、文化旅游等，其特点是盈利性。

58、文化冲突:1.文化冲突的前提是不同质或多元化文化的交汇、碰撞。2.文化的核心是价值观，文化冲突的核心是价值观的冲突。

59、跨文化传播:是社会信息的跨文化传递，或者是社会信息系统的跨文化运行。

60、跨文化传播的途径:自然传播，商道传播，战争传播，移民传播，宗教传播。

61、跨文化传播的影响要素:文化亲和力，时空接近性，国际贸易，国际关系。

62、跨文化传播的不对称性:是指文化传播强国(地区、民族)与文化传播弱国(地区、民族)之间在文化交流中的不平衡状况，即引进文化要素的数量大于输出文化要素的数量，外来文化对本国、地区和民族的影响大于本国、地区和民族文化对外国(地区、民族)的影响的现象。

63、不对称性的危害：1.跨文化传播的不对称性对发展中国家、地区和民族的文化传播主权和文化传播资源构成了威胁。2.跨文化传播的不对称性对发展中国家、地区和民族造成了文化紧张。3.跨文化传播的不对称性给发展中国家、地区和民族带来了价值观的冲突，造成了价值体系的混乱。4.跨文化传播的不对称性有可能使弱势文化被同化。

64、文化冲突:是指两种以上的文化在交流与交往过程中表现出来的矛盾状态和现象。

65、跨文化传播应遵守的原则:1.主权平等原则2.受限的自由传播原则3.和平应原则4.非歧视性原则5.合作与发展原则。

66、文化反弹:是指跨文化传播中，弱势文化在一定时期输入一定量的强势文化因素之后，发生的对外来强势文化的修订和对本土文化的重新认识与肯定。

67、文化反弹的方式U形曲线

68、补充：请论述德国法兰克福学派和英国伯明翰学派的大众文化理论的异同？

两派都是以马克思的批判理论为出发点，不同的是，法兰克福学派继承了马克思主义的理论旨趣和辩证方法论，英国文化研究则实践了马克思主义的政治立场。前者从文化精英的视角，批判大众文化褫夺了精英文化，充满了对大众文化抵制和超越的态度；后者则采用历史主义的现实态度，强调工人阶级对英国社会共同文化的贡献，认为工人阶级的生活方式不但在政治上是合法的，而且本身就是一种文化经验。

第二篇：跨文化考试总结

一、单选 1*10=10分。（Choose the one that）其中有一部分是书中的概念。

二、判断 1*10=10分。（A—>true,B—>false) 课后习题第二大题，其中某些题是变动的。要注重理解。

三、搭配 1*20=20分。matching 四组搭配，概念的对应，每一章课后的summary中的黑体字。

四、阅读理解 1*20=20分。四篇。与课文中的专有词有关。

五、完型填空 1*10=10分。

六、案例分析 3*5=15分。五个案例。书中案例有四个，课外一个。

七、写作 15分。150+words。可以准备一些跨文化、交际的文章。四十分钟的写作时间。8:00——8:40.作文提前收！ 注：前六大题是客观题即选择，只有写作是主观题。

课后题：（课后题第一第二大题老师也让多多关注，我这里就不多写啦，除了课后第一第二大题，我这里都全啦）

1、P28——P30 2、P58——P61 3、P95——P97 4、P124——P126

5、P159——P162 6、P194——P197 7、P237——P240 8、P270——P272 9、P304——P306 所有概念关键词+考试范围内的CASE：

Chapter 1 Culture

Keywords

(1) Culture (from intellectual perspective): Culture is “the arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively”（从知性角度定义文化：作为整体的人类智力成就的艺术和其他表现。）

(2) Culture (from anthropologic perspective): Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values”.（从人类学角度定义文化：文化由清晰和模糊的行为模式构成，这些模式通过符号获得并传播，这些符号由人类群体的特别成就构成，包括具体的人工制品。文化的基本核心由传统思想和与其相关的价值观构成。）

(3) Culture ( from psychological perspective): culture is the collective programming of he mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another。（从心理学角度定义文化：文化是使一个人类群体成员区别于其他人类群体的思维的总体规划。）

(4) Culture (from socialogical perspective): Culture is defined as a pattern of learned, group-related perception—including both verbal and nonverbal language, attitudes, values, belief system, disbelief systems, and behavior. (从社会学角度定义文化：文化是一种可习得的、基于群体的认知模式——包括言语与非言语符号、态度、价值观、信仰和非信仰系统以及行为。)

(5) Culture ( from intercultural communication perspective): is the deposit of knowledge, experience, belief, values, actions, attitudes, hierarchies, religions, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. （从跨文化交际学角度定义文化：文化是个人和群体在种族发展过程中所获得的知识、经验、信仰、价值观、行为、态度、阶级、宗教、时间观、角色、空间观、宇宙观和艺术品的集合。）

(6) Culture Identity: refers to one’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group.（文化身份：认为自己归属于某一文化或民族群体的感觉。）

(7) Subculture：

refers to a culture that exists within dominant culture, and is often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region. （亚文化：指存在于主流文化中的文化，其划分通常基于经济地位、社会阶层、民族、种族或地理区域。）

Subcultures exist within dominant culture ,and are often based on economic or social class,ethnicity,race,or geographic region.

(8) Co-culture: refers to groups or social communities exhibiting communication characteristics, perceptions, values, beliefs, and practices that are significantly different enough to distinguish them from the other groups, communities, and the dominant culture. （共文化：指具有独特的交际特征、感知特点、价值观、信仰和行为，区别于其他群体、社团以及主流文化的群体或社团。）

(9) Subgroup: usually does not involve the same large number of people and is not necessarily thought of as accumulating values and patterns of behavior over generations in the same way as cultures do. （亚群体：相对于亚文化和共文化群体，亚群体通常规模不大，也不一定有文化群体世代相传积累的价值观念和行为模式。）

Case 2: White Dress Case analysis: The Indian women might think the wedding ceremony is a funeral if they see the western bride in white gown. The case reflects the similes and metaphors in the text. Culture is like an iceberg: we can identify the color of the dress worn by women in different cultures, but we do not know the values underneath. Culture is like the water a fish swims in: people wear dress of different colors for different context but they usually take it for granted and never ask why.

?(6) Culture Identity: refers to one’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group.（文化身份：认为自己归属于某一文化或民族群体的感觉。）

Case 4: Coconut-skating（用椰油保养地板的方

法） Case analysis: The case reflects the characteristics of culture. We can tell from the case that culture is pervasive and it’s learned. People may invent different ways for things even as simple as the issue of floor moping. The Philippine woman must have learned this way of mopping from her own culture.

Chapter 2 Communication and Intercultural Communication

Keywords

(1) Sender/Source: A sender/source is the person who transmits a message.（信息发出者/信息源：信息发出者/信息源指传递信息的人。）

(2) Message: A message is any signal that triggers the response of a receiver.（信息：信息指引起信息接受者反应的任何信号。）

(3) Encoding: It refers to the activity during which the sender must choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message. （编码：编码指信息发出者选择言语或用非言语的方式发出有目的的信息的行为。）

(4) Channel/Medium：It is the method used to deliver a message. （渠道/媒介：渠道/媒介指发送信息的方法。 ）

(5) Receiver: A receiver is any person who notices and gives some meaning to a message. (信息接受者：信息接受者指信息接收者是指注意到信息并且赋予信息某些含义的人。)

(6) Decoding: It is the activity during which the receiver attaches meaning to the words or symbols he/she has received.（解码：解码指信息接受者赋予其收到的言语或符号信息意义的行为。）

(7) Feedback: The response of a receiver to a sender’s message is called feedback.（反馈：反馈指信息接收者对信息源信息所做出的反应。）

(8) Noise: It is a term used for factors that interfere with the exchange of messages, including external noise physiological noise, psychological noise and semantic noise.（干扰：干扰指妨碍信息交流的各种因素。包括外界干扰，生理干扰，心理干扰和语义干扰。）

(9) Context: A context is the setting or situation within which communication takes place , including physical context, social context and interpersonal context.（语境：语境指交际发生的环境，包括自然语境，社会语境和人际语

境。） (10) Intercultural communication: It is the communication between people whose cultural perception and symbol system are distinct enough to alter the communication event.( 跨文化交际：跨文化交际指的是那些在文化认知和符号系统上存在差异的人们之间的交际。这些差异足以改变整个交际事件。)

(11) International communication: it takes place between nations and governments rather than individuals; it is quite formal and ritualized. (国际交流：国际交流是指发生在国家和政府之间而非发生在个人之间的交际；此种交际非常正式和仪式化。)

(12) Interracial communication: It occurs when the sender and the receiver exchanging messages are from different races. (跨种族交际：跨种族交际是指交流信息的信息源和信息接受者来自不同的种族的交际。)

(13) Interethnic communication: It is the communication between or among people from different ethnic groups in a country or culture.（跨民族交际：跨民族交际是指来自一个国家或文化内部的不同民族群体的人们之间的交际。）

(14) Intracultural communication: it is defined as communication between or among members of the same culture.（文化内交际：文化内交际是指同一文化内部的成员之间的交际。）

(15) Communication :is derived from the Latin word communicare,meaning to share with or to make common,as in giving to another part or share of your thoughts,hopes,and knowledge.

Case 12: Why Don’t You Eat the Pizza? This case can reflect the problems appearing during intercultural communication and how ignoring cultural differences can affect communication. In Malaysia, where most people are Muslims, people think the left hand is used only for cleaning the body and thus it is dirty and can not be used to pass food. Knowing nothing about the cultural difference, the American student puts himself in an embarrassing situation. Chapter 3 Culture’s Influence on Perception

Keywords

(1) Sensation: It is the neurological process by which people become aware of their environment.（感觉：感觉是人们意识到周围环境的神经过程。)

(2) Perception: It is the process by which we become aware of objects, events, and especially people and their behaviors through our various senses and involves higher-order cognition in the interpretation of the sensory information. (知觉：知觉是一种人们通过各种感觉来觉察事物、事件、人和人的行为的过程。它是解释感觉信息更为高阶的认知过程。)

(3) Selection: It is a process in which we screen out what we need from all the stimuli and information around us.（选择：选择是从周围选择的刺激信息中筛选出所需要的信息的过程。)

(4) Organization: It is the process during which we need to organize and impose structure on what we observe in a meaningful way. （组织： 组织是把从周围选择的刺激信息，以一种有意义的方式整理，组合的过程。）

(5) Interpretation: It refers to attaching meaning to sense data and is synonymous with decoding.（释义：释义是赋予感觉信息意义的过程， 类似于解码过程。）

Case 16: Different Responses to Noise This case can reflect different culture can give different influences on human sensation. No two of people can assume that their sensations are the same, especially when they come from different cultures. Different social reality and living conditions can equip them with different way to sense the world. So it is very common for them to have totally different sensations even towards the same condition. In this case, the German professor and Japanese professor have very different response to the noise produced by the same motor for the heating system because of their cultures and living habits.

Chapter 4 Intercultural Communication Barriers

Keywords

(1) Anxiety: It occurs because of not knowing what one is expected to do, and focusing on that feeling and not be totally present in the communication transaction.（焦虑：当人们不知道如何迎合他人对自己的期待，过多的关注自己情绪以至不能全心投入到交际事物中去时，就会产生焦虑。）

(2) Uncertainty: It refers to our cognitive inability to explain our own or other’s feelings and behaviors in interactions because of an ambiguous situation that evokes anxiety. (不确定：不确定是指人们无法从认知的角度去解释交际活动中自己或他人的感觉及行为，这种认知角度解释能力的欠缺是某种引起焦虑的含糊情境导致的。)

(3) Assuming similarity instead of difference: It refers to the idea that people coming from another culture are more similar to you than they actually are or that another person’s situation is more similar to yours than it in fact is. （假定一致性：假定一致性是指认为来自另一文化的他人和自己相似或他人的处境与自己的处境相似，而事实上却并非如此。）

(4) Ethnocentrism: It refers to negatively judging aspects of another culture by the standards of one’s own culture.（种族或民主中心主义：是指从本国文化的标准出发，消极地审视另一文化。）

(5) Stereotypes: They refer to negative or positive judgments made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership.（文化定势：文化定势指基于明显的或受到认可的群体身份，对目标群体中的个体成员所持有的正面或反面的判断。）

(6) Prejudice: It refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation.（偏见：偏见是指对于某一特定群体、种族、宗教、或性取向的无端地憎恶和怀疑。）

(7) Racism: It refers to any policy, practice, belief, or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals based on their race.（种族主义：种族主义是指基于种族把性格特点或地位归因于个人的任一政策、做法、信仰或态

度。） Case 21: A Danish Woman in New York This case can reflect assuming similarity instead of difference. When communicating with people from another culture, one is likely to regard and treat other people as “his people” and to assume there must be only one way of doing things: that is “his way”. In this case, the Danish woman assumes that her behavior of leaving the baby alone, which is common in Denmark, is also appropriate in New York. Here, she assumes what is suitable in her own culture is also indisputable in another culture. That is why the small conflict happens.

Case 23: Girl-ness This case can reflect one of the translation problems: the lack of conceptual equivalence, which refers to abstract ideas that may not exist in the same fashion in different languages. Different cultures may attach different meanings to the same thing or person. Concerning this case, we should know what young females call themselves is very different in China from the States. In China, "girl" means someone who is young and single. In a way, it makes a female sound more desirable to be called a girl rather than a woman. For most people, "woman" means someone who is married and who probably is not young. In fact, most single Chinese females, such as university students, would be insulted to be called "women". While in the West, in formal, public settings, it is customary to call any woman who is past puberty a woman, even though she may not be legally old enough to vote, marry, purchase alcoholic beverages, drive a car, or sign a contract. This terminology became widespread during the "women's liberation movement in the 1960s". The term "'girl" is sometimes interpreted to be demeaning or disrespectful.

Case 24:An Unfair Decision This case reflects prejudice, which involves an unfair, biased, or intolerant attitude towards another group of people. In this case, Mr. Bias decided to select someone else, instead of applicant from the country Levadel, for the position. That is just because he holds prejudice towards people from the country Levadel.

Chapter 5 Verbal Intercultural Communication

Keywords

(1) Verbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.来自不同文化背景的人用言语进行的交际即言语跨文化交际

(2) Dialect is a form of language peculiar to a group of people, as distinguished from the literary language of the whole people. 方言是某一群体特有的语言，与整个群体的言语不同。

(3) Sociolect refers to variation in terms of social class or style. （社会方言指由于社会阶级或言语风格不同而产生的方言。）

(4) Pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or lends languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 洋泾浜，是一种特殊的语言变体，指为贸易等目的将两种或几种语言混合使用。

(5) When a pidgin language begins to acquire native speakers and becomes the permanent language of a region, it is called a Creole. 当有人以洋泾浜为母语，并成为某一地区永久的语言是，它就成为克里奥耳语或混合语

(6) Lingua franca refers to a specific language that is used as an international means of communication. 通用语指作为国际间交流手段的一种特殊语言。

(7) Taboo refers to prohibition of a set of behaviors that should be avoided because they are offensive and impolite. 禁忌语指被禁止或避免的具有冒犯性的不礼貌行为。

(8) Euphemism is Taboo’s linguistic counterpart because it substitutes the offensive and disturbing vocabulary. 委婉语是替代具有冒犯性的不礼貌的禁忌语词语。

（9Jargon refers to the special or technical vocabularies developed to meet the special needs of particular professions such as medicine and law. 行话指演变而来的专门的或科技词汇，用以满足特殊职业的特殊需要，例如医药和法律。 Case 25:Success Story One of the sources of the frustration and misunderstandings that occurred in this case was different notions of what was verbally relevant. In this case, Mary was expecting a much more direct response to her question. Ms. Goshima, however, was uncomfortable with the question and felt her response should be very indirect and establish a proper sense of modesty before revealing the answer to the question. If Mary had been more patient,

she would have eventually heard the answer to her question, but she was not really paying attention when it finally came because she felt that Ms. Goshima's comments weren't really relevant to her query.

Chapter 6 Nonverbal Intercultural Communication

Keywords

(1) Nonverbal communication: It refers to the messages sent without using words. （非言语交际：不运用言语语言传递信息被称为非言语交际。)

(2) Proxemics: It refers to the study of spatial relations.（时空行为：时空行为对空间关系的研究。）

(3) Kinesics: It refers to gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, body positions, body movement, and forms of greeting and their relation to communication.（身势语行为：身势语（也称体态语），指手势、面目表情、眼神交流、身体姿势、肢体运动和问候方式以及和他们与交际的关系。）

(4) Chronemics: It is the study of how people perceive and use time.（时间行为：对于人们如何理解和利用时间的研究。）

(5) Paralanguage: It is the set of audible sounds that accompany oral language to augment its meaning.（辅助语行为：为增强其含义，伴随言语语言产生的可听到的声音符号系统。）

(6) Haptics: It refers to communicating through the use of bodily contact.（触觉行为：指通过身体接触来交流。）

(7) Chromatics: It refers to the study of color use in affecting people’s perceptions, behaviors and impressions of others.（色彩学：色彩学指对于影响人们认知、行为和他人印象的色彩的研究。）

(8) Olfactics: It is the study of communication via smell.（气味行为：研究气味对于交流的影响的学科。）

(9) Oculesics: It is the study of communications sent by the eyes.（目光语：对于由眼睛所传达的信息的研究。不同的文化对于交际时眼神的接触有不同的要求。）

(10) Silence cues affect interpersonal communication by providing an interval in an ongoing interaction during which the participants have time to think,check or suppress an emotion,encode a lengthy response,or inaugurate another line of thought.

(11) Attire refers to clothing and physical appearance .it also serves as nonverbal symbols.

Case 33:Are Americans Indifferent? This case can reflect different nonverbal communication patterns exist in the actual intercultural communication, especially facial expression differ according to different cultures.Compared to most Chinese, Americans like to smile a lot and to have causal and rich facial expressions in their daily lives, even though they have some misfortune. In this case, because of the different opinions about facial expressions in intercultural communication, the American lady talked about her father’s sickness and death in a smiling way to show she still has the optimistic way to treat the future life, which is misunderstood as being indifferent and selfish by the Chinese.

Case 36:Don’t Put Your Hand on My Arm This case can reflect different cultures have different opinions to spatial relations. Different cultures have very different opinions about an individual’s unconsciously structuring the microspace immediately surrounding the physical body. Some cultures can have relatively close distance when communicating while other cultures cannot. Some western cultures consider body touch between people of the same gender to be cultural taboo and a symbol of being homosexual.In this case, Sam is from western cultures and knows the social taboo of body touch very clearly,so he wouldn’t let others misunderstand Mark’s close body distance and touch with him, even though Mark from Chile doesn’t know the cultural taboo at all.

Chapter 7 Cultural Patterns

Keywords

(1) Cultural pattern: Shared beliefs, values, norms, and social practices that are stable over time and that lead to roughly similar behaviors across similar situations are known as cultural patterns. (文化模式是指在相对稳定的共有的信仰、价值观、标准和社会实践，这些文化模式在相似的情形下会使人产生相似的行为。)

(2) Context：It is the information that surrounds an event, and is inextricably bound up with the meaning of the event.（语境是指事件发生时周围的信息，对事件的意义解读具有重要参考价值。）

(3) High context communication: is one in which most of the information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message. （高语境交际是指在交际过程中大部分的信息靠交际人本身传递，只有少量信息被明确地用语言的形式传递。）

(4) Low context communication: is one in which the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code. （低语境交际是指大量的信息通过明确的语言编码被传递的交际。）

(5) Uncertainty avoidance： deals with the degree to which members of a culture try to avoid uncertainty. （不确定性规避指某一文化的成员对于不确定性因素的规避程度。）

(6) Power distance： is the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept that power is distributed unequally. （权力距离是指机构或组织中权利较小的成员对权利被不平等分配的接受程

度。） 3. Brief Explanations to the Cases of this Chapter

(7) Belief:a belief is an idea that people assume to be true about the world.

(8) Values:involve what a culture regards as good or bad,right or wrong,fair or unfair,just or unjust,beautiful or ugly,clean or dirty,valuable or worthless,appropriate or inappropriate,and kind or cruel.

(9) Norms:are the socially shared expectations of appropriate behaviors.

(10) Social practices:are the predictable behavior patterns that members of a culture typically follow.

(11) Human-nature orientation:我真的不知道该怎么总结这个概念！大家自己看看吧，在书上P239

(12) Person-nature orientation:consists of three categaries:mastery over nature;harmony with nature;subjugation to nature.

(13) Time orientation:as far as time orientation is concerned,cultures may belong to 1,the past orientation;2,the present orientation;3,the future orientation.

(14) Activity orientation:the activity orientation involves three groups:1,the doing orientation;2,the being orientation;3,the being-in-becoming orientation.

(15) Relational orientation:consists of three categaries1,individualism;2,lineality;3,collaterality

(16) Individualistic cultures:give more importance to individuals' needs when they do things such as setting goals.

(17) Collectivism:is characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-groups and out-groups.

(18) Masculine and feminine cultures:

Case 41: Getting Frustrated Jay was frustrated in large part because many of the norms he was used to didn't apply in Saudi Arabia, and many Saudi norms did not make sense to him. Much of the business done in Saudi Arabia depends on baksheesh, a type of kickback to a middleman (and it is a man), who facilitates contacts between potential business partners. The middleman is doing a service and expects to get paid for it. The more baksheesh the person gives, the more likely it is that the person will succeed, because the middleman will be sure to treat him very well. Giving baksheesh is a norm in the Saudi business community. In addition, Saudis believe that God gave us multifunctional hands and that the hand is our best tool for eating. However, they are also concerned with hygiene. They reserve the left hand for cleaning themselves and use the right hand for eating. Saudis have a number of norms related to restricting male and female interaction that, within the context of their religious beliefs, make perfect sense but would be very inappropriate to most Westerners.

Case 43: The Improvement Does Not Work Following their individualistic orientations, Mr. Patterson and Mr. Wyman were perfectly comfortable with the idea of creating team leaders within the individual sales groups. However, as Park Young Sam mentions, doing so upset the harmony of the groups, which in turn led to poor performance. In the United States, workers are often motivated by the opportunity for promotion and advancement as this serves the individualistic drive for individual achievement. In collectivistic cultures, however, workers may be motivated by being a part of a cohesive and productive team. Individualism and collectivism are terms that describe whole cultures. But cultures are not pure. Members of collectivist cultures may practice individualistic tendencies while members of individualist cultures may value collectivist ideals. For example, Denmark is a country with both collectivistic and individualistic tendencies. In Denmark, individual freedom is nurtured through a devotion to established traditions and customs. Regarding income and social rank, Danes are staunchly egalitarian. At the same time, however, Danes consider themselves

free to be nonconformist and to stand out from the group. In this way, Danes may be at the theoretical midpoint of the individualism and collectivism cultural continuum.

Case 44:When Shall We Meet For Dinner? Uncertainty avoidance orientation can be seen in this case. In the dialogue presented below,Kelly and Keiko are interacting about a dinner invitation. Kelly, from the United States, possesses a relatively low uncertainty avoidance index, while Keiko, from Japan, comes from a culture with a relatively high uncertainty avoidance index.In the dialogue above, Keiko is confused by Kelly’s easygoing attitude toward the evening’s plans. Coming from a high uncertainty-avoidant culture, Keiko would prefer to plan ahead to avoid uncertainty and prepare her script for the evening. Kelly, on the other hand, is perfectly comfortable making plans based on how the evening progresses. Without a plan, how will Keiko know how to act?

Chapter 8 Cultural Influences on Contexts

Keywords

Communication is not devoid of external influence: all human interaction is influenced to some degree by the social, physical, and cultural settings in which it occurs. This is known as the communication context. （交际无法脱离外部环境的影响：所有的人类交际都或多或少受到社会、物理和文化场景的影响。这些场景被称为交际语境。）

Case 48:Gift from a Chinese Chinese people love giving gifts. Usually, the value of the gift is an indication of how important the receiver is in the sender’s eyes. Most people giving gifts are concerned about whether the gift will be seen as valuable enough. An inexpensive gift means a loss of face.Dongxie may have a practical reason in giving the ginseng to his manager, but most Chinese will take it as something usual for a subordinate to do this to a manager out of a sign of respect.North American companies do occasionally receive gifts out of appreciation for the friendship and assistance the manager may provide. Such gifts are treasured; however, the value usually is fairly small, a bottle of wine, a music CD, a small book, or other tokens.

Case 50:Refuse to Be Treated? In the case just described, the U.S. American medical team system for making sense of the situation demanded that people be seen in order of the seriousness of their injuries or illness. Each person was considered as worthwhile as the next, and so seriousness of injury appeared to be a natural way to determine who was seen first. However, the cultural system working for those on the Virgin Islands demanded that elders be seen and treated first. Their position, age, and wisdom demanded respect. For younger members of the community to go ahead of them in a time of crisis was seen as extremely disrespectful.The conflict centered on efforts by each side to do what they perceived as good and morally responsible. Because the U.S. Americans were in a better position to adapt than an entire community that had just suffered great loss and were under extreme stress, it was good that they were willing to do so. Sadly, this is not always the case.

Chapter 9 Intercultural Adaptation

Keywords

（1）Acculturation：

It refers to an individual’s learning and adapting to the norms and values of the new host culture. （文化适应：文化适应指人们学习和适应新文化的社会规范和价值观念的过程。）

（2）Assimilation：

It is a process in which members of an ethnic group are absorbed into the dominant culture, losing their culture in the process. (同化：同化指一个民族群体的人们逐渐失去自己原有的文化，接受新的主流文化的过程。)

（3）

Integration: It takes place when some people desire a high level of interaction with the host culture while maintaining identity with their native culture. This kind of acculturation is called integration. (文化融合：文化融合指人们在文化适应过程中高度接受新的主流文化，同时又保留了自己文化的完整性)。

（4）Separation：

When individuals prefer low levels of interaction with the host culture and associated microcultural groups while desiring a close connection with, and reaffirmation of, their native culture, the mode of acculturation is called separation.

（分离：分离指人们在文化适应过程中对自己原有文化进行重新肯定认同、保留了原有文化，对新的主流文化及与其相关的微观文化不接受不认可）。

（5）Segregation：

It occurs when the more politically and economically powerful culture does not want the intercultural contact, the separation is initiated and enforced by the dominant society.（隔离：隔离当经济和政治上更强大的新主流文化不接受人们与它进行文化接触，人们就会被这种文化隔离在外。）

（6）Marginalization：

It occurs when the individual chooses not to identify with his or her native culture or with the host culture. (边缘化：边缘化指人们不仅失去自己原有的文化身份，而且无法融入新的主流文化。)

（7）

Culture shock: It refers to the traumatic experience that an individual may encounter when entering a different culture. （文化冲击/文化休克：文化冲击/文化休克指人们在进入一种新文化环境中遭遇的痛苦和难忘的经历。）

（8）

Intercultural adaptation: It refers broadly to the process of increasing our level of fitness to meet the demands of a new cultural environment. (跨文化适应：跨文化适应指人们不断提高自己的适应能力，以期达到新文化环境的需要。)

Case 54: A Fish out of Water This case reflects that the boy is experiencing culture shock, which may bring him some psychological symptoms. Culture shock is virtually a communication problem which involves the depressed feelings accompanying a lack of understanding of the verbal and nonverbal communication of the host culture, its customs, as well as its value systems. Culture shock happens when people have to deal with a huge amount of new perceptual stimuli that are difficult to understand and interpret because the cultural context has changed. In this case, when the American student feels that his familiar cues from his native culture is removed, he becomes to reject the new environment and he displays some psychological symptoms due to culture shock.

Case 55: Missing China! This case can reflect reverse culture shock. When people return home after an extended stay in a foreign culture, they experience another round of culture shock in their native culture and they must proceed through the four stages of the U-curve pattern once again. In this case, John, whose comes from Canada, has been living in China for quite a long time and he has got familiar with the Chinese culture. Therefore, when he returns to Canada, he cannot adapt well to his native culture.