1. W. William Shakespeare威廉·莎士比亚

四大悲剧：《哈姆雷特》(英：Hamlet)、《奥赛罗》（英：Othello)、《李尔王》（英：King Lear）、《麦克白》（英：Mac Beth）

著名喜剧：《仲夏夜之梦》《威尼斯商人》《第十二夜》《皆大欢喜》（《As you like it》）

2．Charles Dickens查尔斯·狄更斯

《孤雏泪》（Oliver Twist）《小气财神》（A Christmas Carol）《大卫·科波菲尔》（David Copperfield）《荒凉山庄》（Bleak House）《艰难时世》（Hard Times）《双城记》（A Tale of Two Cities）和《远大前程》（Great Expectations）《老古玩店》（The Old Curiocity Shop）《匹克威克外传》（ The Pickwick Papers ）《我们共同的朋友》（ Our Mutual Friend ）

3. Jane Austen简·奥斯汀

《理智与情感》又名《理性与感性》(Sense and Sensibility, 1811) 《傲慢与偏见》(Pride and Prejudice, 1813) 《曼斯菲尔德庄园》(Mansfield Park, 1814) 《诺桑觉寺》(Northanger Abbey, 1818) 《劝导》(Persuasion, 1818) 女生

4. Mark Twain马克·吐温

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn 1884,

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer,1876

The Prince and the Pauper,1882

The celebrated jumping frog of calaveras county

The Million Pound Note

Life on the Mississippi

Running for Governor

5. charlotte bronte夏洛蒂·勃朗特

简·爱（Jane Eyre）

6. Emily Bronte艾米莉·勃朗特

Wuthering Heights 呼啸山庄

7.Holly Bible 圣经

8.英语学习 疯狂英语 英语角 英语沙龙 海外英语 英语世界 （期刊）China Daily 21st Century 英语辅导报（报刊）

Bill Bryson—Mother Tougue较易

The old man and the sea the adventures of tom sawyer uncle tom’s cabin the great gatsby the odessa file the god father男生

A red red rose stopping by woods the road not taken speech at gettysburg I have a dream (诗篇 文章)

第二篇：【必读】-英文名著：THE ATHENIAN CONSTITUTION

===========================世界上最远的距离 不是星星之间的轨迹 而是纵然轨迹交汇 却在转瞬间无处寻觅 =========================================350 BCTHE ATHENIAN CONSTITUTIONby Aristotletranslated by Sir Frederic G. KenyonPart 1...[They were tried] by a court empanelled from among the noblefamilies, and sworn upon the sacrifices. The part of accuser was takenby Myron. They were found guilty of the sacrilege, and their bodieswere cast out of their graves and their race banished for evermore. Inview of this expiation, Epimenides the Cretan performed a purificationof the city.Part 2After this event there was contention for a long time between theupper classes and the populace. Not only was the constitution atthis time oligarchical in every respect, but the poorer classes,men, women, and children, were the serfs of the rich. They wereknown as Pelatae and also as Hectemori, because they cultivated thelands of the rich at the rent thus indicated. The whole country was inthe hands of a few persons, and if the tenants failed to pay theirrent they were liable to be haled into slavery, and their childrenwith them. All loans secured upon the debtor's person, a customwhich prevailed until the time of Solon, who was the first to appearas the champion of the people. But the hardest and bitterest part ofthe constitution in the eyes of the masses was their state of serfdom.Not but what they were also discontented with every other feature oftheir lot; for, to speak generally, they had no part nor share inanything.Part 3Now the ancient constitution, as it existed before the time ofDraco, was organized as follows. The magistrates were electedaccording to qualifications of birth and wealth. At first theygoverned for life, but subsequently for terms of ten years. Thefirst magistrates, both in date and in importance, were the King,the Polemarch, and the Archon. The earliest of these offices wasthat of the King, which existed from ancestral antiquity. To thiswas added, secondly, the office of Polemarch, on account of some ofthe kings proving feeble in war; for it was on this account that Ionwas invited to accept the post on an occasion of pressing need. Thelast of the three offices was that of the Archon, which mostauthorities state to have come into existence in the time of Medon.Others assign it to the time of Acastus, and adduce as proof thefact that the nine Archons swear to execute their oaths 'as in thedays of Acastus,' which seems to suggest that it was in his timethat the descendants of Codrus retired from the kingship in return forthe prerogatives conferred upon the Archon. Whichever way it may be,the difference in date is small; but that it was the last of thesemagistrac

ies to be created is shown by the fact that the Archon has nopart in the ancestral sacrifices, as the King and the Polemarchhave, but exclusively in those of later origin. So it is only at acomparatively late date that the office of Archon has become ofgreat importance, through the dignity conferred by these lateradditions. The Thesmothetae were many years afterwards, when theseoffices had already become annual, with the object that they mightpublicly record all legal decisions, and act as guardians of them witha view to determining the issues between litigants. Accordinglytheir office, alone of those which have been mentioned, was never ofmore than annual duration.Such, then, is the relative chronological precedence of theseoffices. At that time the nine Archons did not all live together.The King occupied the building now known as the Boculium, near thePrytaneum, as may be seen from the fact that even to the present daythe marriage of the King's wife to Dionysus takes place there. TheArchon lived in the Prytaneum, the Polemarch in the Epilyceum. Thelatter building was formerly called the Polemarcheum, but afterEpilycus, during his term of office as Polemarch, had rebuilt it andfitted it up, it was called the Epilyceum. The Thesmothetae occupiedthe Thesmotheteum. In the time of Solon, however, they all cametogether into the Thesmotheteum. They had power to decide casesfinally on their own authority, not, as now, merely to hold apreliminary hearing. Such then was the arrangement of themagistracies. The Council of Areopagus had as its constitutionallyassigned duty the protection of the laws; but in point of fact itadministered the greater and most important part of the governmentof the state, and inflicted personal punishments and fines summarilyupon all who misbehaved themselves. This was the natural consequenceof the facts that the Archons were elected under qualifications ofbirth and wealth, and that the Areopagus was composed of those who hadserved as Archons; for which latter reason the membership of theAreopagus is the only office which has continued to be alife-magistracy to the present day.Part 4Such was, in outline, the first constitution, but not very longafter the events above recorded, in the archonship of Aristaichmus,Draco enacted his ordinances. Now his constitution had the followingform. The franchise was given to all who could furnish themselves witha military equipment. The nine Archons and the Treasurers were electedby this body from persons possessing an unencumbered property of notless than ten minas, the less important officials from those who couldfurnish themselves with a military equipment, and the generals[Strategi] and commanders of the cavalry [Hipparchi] from those whocould show an unencumbered property of not less than a hundredminas, and had children born in lawful wedlock over ten years ofage. These officer

s were required to hold to bail the Prytanes, theStrategi, and the Hipparchi of the preceding year until their accountshad been audited, taking four securities of the same class as thatto which the Strategi and the Hipparchi belonged. There was also to bea Council, consisting of four hundred and one members, elected bylot from among those who possessed the franchise. Both for this andfor the other magistracies the lot was cast among those who wereover thirty years of age; and no one might hold office twice untilevery one else had had his turn, after which they were to cast the lotafresh. If any member of the Council failed to attend when there was asitting of the Council or of the Assembly, he paid a fine, to theamount of three drachmas if he was a Pentacosiomedimnus, two if he wasa Knight, and One if he was a Zeugites. The Council of Areopagus wasguardian of the laws, and kept watch over the magistrates to seethat they executed their offices in accordance with the laws. Anyperson who felt himself wronged might lay an information before theCouncil of Areopagus, on declaring what law was broken by the wrongdone to him. But, as has been said before, loans were secured upon thepersons of the debtors, and the land was in the hands of a few.Part 5Since such, then, was the organization of the constitution, andthe many were in slavery to the few, the people rose against the upperclass. The strife was keen, and for a long time the two parties wereranged in hostile camps against one another, till at last, by commonconsent, they appointed Solon to be mediator and Archon, and committedthe whole constitution to his hands. The immediate occasion of hisappointment was his poem, which begins with the words:I behold, and within my heart deep sadness has claimed its place,As I mark the oldest home of the ancient Ionian raceSlain by the sword.In this poem he fights and disputes on behalf of each party inturn against the other, and finally he advises them to come to termsand put an end to the quarrel existing between them. By birth andreputation Solon was one of the foremost men of the day, but in wealthand position he was of the middle class, as is generally agreed, andis, indeed, established by his own evidence in these poems, where heexhorts the wealthy not to be grasping.But ye who have store of good, who are sated and overflow,Restrain your swelling soul, and still it and keep it low:Let the heart that is great within you he trained a lowlier way;Ye shall not have all at your will, and we will not for ever obey.Indeed, he constantly fastens the blame of the conflict on therich; and accordingly at the beginning of the poem he says that hefears' the love of wealth and an overweening mind', evidentlymeaning that it was through these that the quarrel arose.Part 6As soon as he was at the head of affairs, Solon liberated

the peopleonce and for all, by prohibiting all loans on the security of thedebtor's person: and in addition he made laws by which he cancelledall debts, public and private. This measure is commonly called theSeisachtheia [= removal of burdens], since thereby the people hadtheir loads removed from them. In connexion with it some persons tryto traduce the character of Solon. It so happened that, when he wasabout to enact the Seisachtheia, he communicated his intention to somemembers of the upper class, whereupon, as the partisans of the popularparty say, his friends stole a march on him; while those who wish toattack his character maintain that he too had a share in the fraudhimself. For these persons borrowed money and bought up a large amountof land, and so when, a short time afterwards, all debts werecancelled, they became wealthy; and this, they say, was the originof the families which were afterwards looked on as having been wealthyfrom primeval times. However, the story of the popular party is by farthe most probable. A man who was so moderate and public-spirited inall his other actions, that when it was within his power to put hisfellow-citizens beneath his feet and establish himself as tyrant, hepreferred instead to incur the hostility of both parties by placinghis honour and the general welfare above his personalaggrandisement, is not likely to have consented to defile his hands bysuch a petty and palpable fraud. That he had this absolute power is,in the first place, indicated by the desperate condition thecountry; moreover, he mentions it himself repeatedly in his poems, andit is universally admitted. We are therefore bound to consider thisaccusation to be false.Part 7Next Solon drew up a constitution and enacted new laws; and theordinances of Draco ceased to be used, with the exception of thoserelating to murder. The laws were inscribed on the wooden stands,and set up in the King's Porch, and all swore to obey them; and thenine Archons made oath upon the stone, declaring that they woulddedicate a golden statue if they should transgress any of them. Thisis the origin of the oath to that effect which they take to thepresent day. Solon ratified his laws for a hundred years; and thefollowing was the fashion in which he organized the constitution. Hedivided the population according to property into four classes, justas it had been divided before, namely, Pentacosiomedimni, Knights,Zeugitae, and Thetes. The various magistracies, namely, the nineArchons, the Treasurers, the Commissioners for Public Contracts(Poletae), the Eleven, and Clerks (Colacretae), he assigned to thePentacosiomedimni, the Knights, and the Zeugitae, giving offices toeach class in proportion to the value of their rateable property. Towho ranked among the Thetes he gave nothing but a place in theAssembly and in the juries. A man had to rank as aPentacosiomedimnus

if he made, from his own land, five hundredmeasures, whether liquid or solid. Those ranked as Knights who madethree hundred measures, or, as some say, those who were able tomaintain a horse. In support of the latter definition they adducethe name of the class, which may be supposed to be derived from thisfact, and also some votive offerings of early times; for in theAcropolis there is a votive offering, a statue of Diphilus, bearingthis inscription:The son of Diphilus, Athenion hight,Raised from the Thetes and become a knight,Did to the gods this sculptured charger bring,For his promotion a thank-offering.And a horse stands in evidence beside the man, implying that thiswas what was meant by belonging to the rank of Knight. At the sametime it seems reasonable to suppose that this class, like thePentacosiomedimni, was defined by the possession of an income of acertain number of measures. Those ranked as Zeugitae who made twohundred measures, liquid or solid; and the rest ranked as Thetes,and were not eligible for any office. Hence it is that even at thepresent day, when a candidate for any office is asked to what class hebelongs, no one would think of saying that he belonged to the Thetes.Part 8The elections to the various offices Solon enacted should be by lot,out of candidates selected by each of the tribes. Each tribeselected ten candidates for the nine archonships, and among thesethe lot was cast. Hence it is still the custom for each tribe tochoose ten candidates by lot, and then the lot is again cast amongthese. A proof that Solon regulated the elections to officeaccording to the property classes may be found in the law still inforce with regard to the Treasurers, which enacts that they shall bechosen from the Pentacosiomedimni. Such was Solon's legislation withrespect to the nine Archons; whereas in early times the Council ofAreopagus summoned suitable persons according to its own judgement andappointed them for the year to the several offices. There were fourtribes, as before, and four tribe-kings. Each tribe was divided intothree Trittyes [=Thirds], with twelve Naucraries in each; and theNaucraries had officers of their own, called Naucrari, whose duty itwas to superintend the current receipts and expenditure. Hence,among the laws of Solon now obsolete, it is repeatedly written thatthe Naucrari are to receive and to spend out of the Naucraric fund.Solon also appointed a Council of four hundred, a hundred from eachtribe; but he assigned to the Council of the Areopagus the duty ofsuperintending the laws, acting as before as the guardian of theconstitution in general. It kept watch over the affairs of the statein most of the more important matters, and corrected offenders, withfull powers to inflict either fines or personal punishment. Themoney received in fines it brought up into the Acropolis, withoutassigning the reason

for the mulct. It also tried those whoconspired for the overthrow of the state, Solon having enacted aprocess of impeachment to deal with such offenders. Further, sincehe saw the state often engaged in internal disputes, while many of thecitizens from sheer indifference accepted whatever might turn up, hemade a law with express reference to such persons, enacting that anyone who, in a time civil factions, did not take up arms with eitherparty, should lose his rights as a citizen and cease to have anypart in the state.Part 9Such, then, was his legislation concerning the magistracies. Thereare three points in the constitution of Solon which appear to be itsmost democratic features: first and most important, the prohibition ofloans on the security of the debtor's person; secondly, the right ofevery person who so willed to claim redress on behalf of any one towhom wrong was being done; thirdly, the institution of the appeal tothe jurycourts; and it is to this last, they say, that the masses haveowed their strength most of all, since, when the democracy is masterof the voting-power, it is master of the constitution. Moreover, sincethe laws were not drawn up in simple and explicit terms (but likethe one concerning inheritances and wards of state), disputesinevitably occurred, and the courts had to decide in every matter,whether public or private. Some persons in fact believe that Solondeliberately made the laws indefinite, in order that the finaldecision might be in the hands of the people. This, however, is notprobable, and the reason no doubt was that it is impossible toattain ideal perfection when framing a law in general terms; for wemust judge of his intentions, not from the actual results in thepresent day, but from the general tenor of the rest of hislegislation.Part 10These seem to be the democratic features of his laws; but inaddition, before the period of his legislation, he carried through hisabolition of debts, and after it his increase in the standards ofweights and measures, and of the currency. During his administrationthe measures were made larger than those of Pheidon, and the mina,which previously had a standard of seventy drachmas, was raised to thefull hundred. The standard coin in earlier times was the two-drachmapiece. He also made weights corresponding with the coinage,sixty-three minas going to the talent; and the odd three minas weredistributed among the staters and the other values.Part 11When he had completed his organization of the constitution in themanner that has been described, he found himself beset by peoplecoming to him and harassing him concerning his laws, criticizinghere and questioning there, till, as he wished neither to alter whathe had decided on nor yet to be an object of ill will to every oneby remaining in Athens, he set off on a journey to Egypt, with thecombined objects of trade an

d travel, giving out that he should notreturn for ten years. He considered that there was no call for himto expound the laws personally, but that every one should obey themjust as they were written. Moreover, his position at this time wasunpleasant. Many members of the upper class had been estranged fromhim on account of his abolition of debts, and both parties werealienated through their disappointment at the condition of thingswhich he had created. The mass of the people had expected him tomake a complete redistribution of all property, and the upper classhoped he would restore everything to its former position, or, at anyrate, make but a small change. Solon, however, had resisted bothclasses. He might have made himself a despot by attaching himself towhichever party he chose, but he preferred, though at the cost ofincurring the enmity of both, to be the saviour of his country and theideal lawgiver.Part 12The truth of this view of Solon's policy is established alike bycommon consent, and by the mention he has himself made of the matterin his poems. Thus:I gave to the mass of the people such rank as befitted their need,I took not away their honour, and I granted naught to their greed;While those who were rich in power, who in wealth were glorious andgreat,I bethought me that naught should befall them unworthy theirsplendour and state;So I stood with my shield outstretched, and both were sale in itssight,And I would not that either should triumph, when the triumph wasnot with right.Again he declares how the mass of the people ought to be treated:But thus will the people best the voice of their leaders obey,When neither too slack is the rein, nor violence holdeth the sway;For indulgence breedeth a child, the presumption that spurns control,When riches too great are poured upon men of unbalanced soul.And again elsewhere he speaks about the persons who wished toredistribute the land:So they came in search of plunder, and their cravings knew no hound,Every one among them deeming endless wealth would here be found.And that I with glozing smoothness hid a cruel mind within.Fondly then and vainly dreamt they; now they raise an angry din,And they glare askance in anger, and the light within their eyesBurns with hostile flames upon me. Yet therein no justice lies.All I promised, fully wrought I with the gods at hand to cheer,Naught beyond in folly ventured. Never to my soul was dearWith a tyrant's force to govern, nor to see the good and baseSide by side in equal portion share the rich home of our race.Once more he speaks of the abolition of debts and of those whobefore were in servitude, but were released owing to the Seisachtheia:Of all the aims for which I summoned forthThe people, was there one I compassed not?Thou, when slow time brings justice in its train,O mighty mother of the Oly

mpian gods,Dark Earth, thou best canst witness, from whose breastI swept the pillars broadcast planted there,And made thee free, who hadst been slave of yore.And many a man whom fraud or law had soldFor from his god-built land, an outcast slave,I brought again to Athens; yea, and some,Exiles from home through debt's oppressive load,Speaking no more the dear ATHENIAN tongue,But wandering far and wide, I brought again;And those that here in vilest slaveryCrouched 'neath a master's frown, I set them free.Thus might and right were yoked in harmony,Since by the force of law I won my endsAnd kept my promise. Equal laws I gaveTo evil and to good, with even handDrawing straight justice for the lot of each.But had another held the goad asOne in whose heart was guile and greediness,He had not kept the people back from strife.For had I granted, now what pleased the one,Then what their foes devised in counterpoise,Of many a man this state had been bereft.Therefore I showed my might on every side,Turning at bay like wolf among the hounds.And again he reviles both parties for their grumblings in thetimes that followed:Nay, if one must lay blame where blame is due,Wer't not for me, the people ne'er had setTheir eyes upon these blessings e'en in dreams:-While greater men, the men of wealthier life,Should praise me and should court me as their friend.For had any other man, he says, received this exalted post,He had not kept the people hack, nor ceasedTil he had robbed the richness of the milk.But I stood forth a landmark in the midst,And barred the foes from battle.Part 13Such then, were Solon's reasons for his departure from thecountry. After his retirement the city was still torn by divisions.For four years, indeed, they lived in peace; but in the fifth yearafter Solon's government they were unable to elect an Archon onaccount of their dissensions, and again four years later theyelected no Archon for the same reason. Subsequently, after a similarperiod had elapsed, Damasias was elected Archon; and he governed fortwo years and two months, until he was forcibly expelled from hisoffice. After this, it was agreed, as a compromise, to elect tenArchons, five from the Eupatridae, three from the Agroeci, and twofrom the Demiurgi, and they ruled for the year following Damasias.It is clear from this that the Archon was at the time the magistratewho possessed the greatest power, since it is always in connexion withthis office that conflicts are seen to arise. But altogether they werein a continual state of internal disorder. Some found the cause andjustification of their discontent in the abolition of debts, becausethereby they had been reduced to poverty; others were dissatisfiedwith the political constitution, because it had undergone arevolutionary change; while with others

the motive was found inpersonal rivalries among themselves. The parties at this time werethree in number. First there was the party of the Shore, led byMegacles the son of Alcmeon, which was considered to aim at a moderateform of government; then there were the men of the Plain, whodesired an oligarchy and were led by Lycurgus; and thirdly therewere the men of the Highlands, at the head of whom was Pisistratus,who was looked on as an extreme democrat. This latter party wasreinforced by those who had been deprived of the debts due to them,from motives of poverty, and by those who were not of pure descent,from motives of personal apprehension. A proof of this is seen inthe fact that after the tyranny was overthrown a revision was madeof the citizen-roll, on the ground that many persons were partaking inthe franchise without having a right to it. The names given to therespective parties were derived from the districts in which theyheld their lands.Part 14Pisistratus had the reputation of being an extreme democrat, andhe also had distinguished himself greatly in the war with Megara.Taking advantage of this, he wounded himself, and by representing thathis injuries had been inflicted on him by his political rivals, hepersuaded the people, through a motion proposed by Aristion, togrant him a bodyguard. After he had got these 'club-bearers', asthey were called, he made an attack with them on the people and seizedthe Acropolis. This happened in the archonship of Comeas, thirty-oneyears after the legislation of Solon. It is related that, whenPisistratus asked for his bodyguard, Solon opposed the request, anddeclared that in so doing he proved himself wiser than half the peopleand braver than the rest,-wiser than those who did not see thatPisistratus designed to make himself tyrant, and braver than those whosaw it and kept silence. But when all his words availed nothing hecarried forth his armour and set it up in front of his house, sayingthat he had helped his country so far as lay in his power (he wasalready a very old man), and that he called on all others to do thesame. Solon's exhortations, however, proved fruitless, and Pisistratusassumed the sovereignty. His administration was more like aconstitutional government than the rule of a tyrant; but before hispower was firmly established, the adherents of Megacles and Lycurgusmade a coalition and drove him out. This took place in thearchonship of Hegesias, five years after the first establishment ofhis rule. Eleven years later Megacles, being in difficulties in aparty struggle, again opened-negotiations with Pisistratus,proposing that the latter should marry his daughter; and on theseterms he brought him back to Athens, by a very primitive andsimple-minded device. He first spread abroad a rumour that Athenawas bringing back Pisistratus, and then, having found a woman of greatstature and beauty,

named Phye (according to Herodotus, of the deme ofPaeania, but as others say a Thracian flower-seller of the deme ofCollytus), he dressed her in a garb resembling that of the goddess andbrought her into the city with Pisistratus. The latter drove in on achariot with the woman beside him, and the inhabitants of the city,struck with awe, received him with adoration.Part 15In this manner did his first return take place. He did not, however,hold his power long, for about six years after his return he was againexpelled. He refused to treat the daughter of Megacles as his wife,and being afraid, in consequence, of a combination of the two opposingparties, he retired from the country. First he led a colony to a placecalled Rhaicelus, in the region of the Thermaic gulf; and thence hepassed to the country in the neighbourhood of Mt. Pangaeus. Here heacquired wealth and hired mercenaries; and not till ten years hadelapsed did he return to Eretria and make an attempt to recover thegovernment by force. In this he had the assistance of many allies,notably the Thebans and Lygdamis of Naxos, and also the Knights whoheld the supreme power in the constitution of Eretria. After hisvictory in the battle at Pallene he captured Athens, and when he haddisarmed the people he at last had his tyranny securely established,and was able to take Naxos and set up Lygdamis as ruler there. Heeffected the disarmament of the people in the following manner. Heordered a parade in full armour in the Theseum, and began to make aspeech to the people. He spoke for a short time, until the peoplecalled out that they could not hear him, whereupon he bade them comeup to the entrance of the Acropolis, in order that his voice mightbe better heard. Then, while he continued to speak to them at greatlength, men whom he had appointed for the purpose collected the armsand locked them up in the chambers of the Theseum hard by, and cameand made a signal to him that it was done. Pisistratus accordingly,when he had finished the rest of what he had to say, told the peoplealso what had happened to their arms; adding that they were not tobe surprised or alarmed, but go home and attend to their privateaffairs, while he would himself for the future manage all the businessof the state.Part 16Such was the origin and such the vicissitudes of the tyranny ofPisistratus. His administration was temperate, as has been saidbefore, and more like constitutional government than a tyranny. Notonly was he in every respect humane and mild and ready to forgivethose who offended, but, in addition, he advanced money to thepoorer people to help them in their labours, so that they might maketheir living by agriculture. In this he had two objects, first thatthey might not spend their time in the city but might be scatteredover all the face of the country, and secondly that, beingmoderately well off and occupie

d with their own business, they mighthave neither the wish nor the time to attend to public affairs. At thesame time his revenues were increased by the thorough cultivation ofthe country, since he imposed a tax of one tenth on all the produce.For the same reasons he instituted the local justices,' and often madeexpeditions in person into the country to inspect it and to settledisputes between individuals, that they might not come into the cityand neglect their farms. It was in one of these progresses that, asthe story goes, Pisistratus had his adventure with the man ofHymettus, who was cultivating the spot afterwards known as 'Tax-freeFarm'. He saw a man digging and working at a very stony piece ofground, and being surprised he sent his attendant to ask what he gotout of this plot of land. 'Aches and pains', said the man; 'and that'swhat Pisistratus ought to have his tenth of'. The man spoke withoutknowing who his questioner was; but Pisistratus was so leased with hisfrank speech and his industry that he granted him exemption from alltaxes. And so in matters in general he burdened the people as littleas possible with his government, but always cultivated peace andkept them in all quietness. Hence the tyranny of Pisistratus was oftenspoken of proverbially as 'the age of gold'; for when his sonssucceeded him the government became much harsher. But most importantof all in this respect was his popular and kindly disposition. Inall things he was accustomed to observe the laws, without givinghimself any exceptional privileges. Once he was summoned on a chargeof homicide before the Areopagus, and he appeared in person to makehis defence; but the prosecutor was afraid to present himself andabandoned the case. For these reasons he held power long, and wheneverhe was expelled he regained his position easily. The majority alike ofthe upper class and of the people were in his favour; the former hewon by his social intercourse with them, the latter by theassistance which he gave to their private purses, and his naturefitted him to win the hearts of both. Moreover, the laws inreference to tyrants at that time in force at Athens were very mild,especially the one which applies more particularly to theestablishment of a tyranny. The law ran as follows: 'These are theancestral statutes of the ATHENIANs; if any persons shall make anattempt to establish a tyranny, or if any person shall join in settingup a tyranny, he shall lose his civic rights, both himself and hiswhole house.'Part 17Thus did Pisistratus grow old in the possession of power, and hedied a natural death in the archonship of Philoneos, three andthirty years from the time at which he first established himself astyrant, during nineteen of which he was in possession of power; therest he spent in exile. It is evident from this that the story is meregossip which states that Pisistratus was the

youthful favourite ofSolon and commanded in the war against Megara for the recovery ofSalamis. It will not harmonize with their respective ages, as anyone may see who will reckon up the years of the life of each ofthem, and the dates at which they died. After the death of Pisistratushis sons took up the government, and conducted it on the samesystem. He had two sons by his first and legitimate wife, Hippiasand Hipparchus, and two by his Argive consort, Iophon andHegesistratus, who was surnamed Thessalus. For Pisistratus took a wifefrom Argos, Timonassa, the daughter of a man of Argos, named Gorgilus;she had previously been the wife of Archinus of Ambracia, one of thedescendants of Cypselus. This was the origin of his friendship withthe Argives, on account of which a thousand of them were broughtover by Hegesistratus and fought on his side in the battle at Pallene.Some authorities say that this marriage took place after his firstexpulsion from Athens, others while he was in possession of thegovernment.Part 18Hippias and Hipparchus assumed the control of affairs on groundsalike of standing and of age; but Hippias, as being also naturallyof a statesmanlike and shrewd disposition, was really the head ofthe government. Hipparchus was youthful in disposition, amorous, andfond of literature (it was he who invited to Athens Anacreon,Simonides, and the other poets), while Thessalus was much junior inage, and was violent and headstrong in his behaviour. It was fromhis character that all the evils arose which befell the house. Hebecame enamoured of Harmodius, and, since he failed to win hisaffection, he lost all restraint upon his passion, and in additionto other exhibitions of rage he finally prevented the sister ofHarmodius from taking the part of a basket-bearer in the Panathenaicprocession, alleging as his reason that Harmodius was a person ofloose life. Thereupon, in a frenzy of wrath, Harmodius andAristogeiton did their celebrated deed, in conjunction with a numberof confederates. But while they were lying in wait for Hippias inthe Acropolis at the time of the Panathenaea (Hippias, at this moment,was awaiting the arrival of the procession, while Hipparchus wasorganizing its dispatch) they saw one of the persons privy to the plottalking familiarly with him. Thinking that he was betraying them,and desiring to do something before they were arrested, they rusheddown and made their attempt without waiting for the rest of theirconfederates. They succeeded in killing Hipparchus near theLeocoreum while he was engaged in arranging the procession, but ruinedthe design as a whole; of the two leaders, Harmodius was killed on thespot by the guards, while Aristogeiton was arrested, and perishedlater after suffering long tortures. While under the torture heaccused many persons who belonged by birth to the most distinguishedfamilies and were also personal

friends of the tyrants. At first thegovernment could find no clue to the conspiracy; for the currentstory, that Hippias made all who were taking part in the processionleave their arms, and then detected those who were carrying secretdaggers, cannot be true, since at that time they did not bear armsin the processions, this being a custom instituted at a later periodby the democracy. According to the story of the popular party,Aristogeiton accused the friends of the tyrants with the deliberateintention that the latter might commit an impious act, and at the sametime weaken themselves, by putting to death innocent men who weretheir own friends; others say that he told no falsehood, but wasbetraying the actual accomplices. At last, when for all his efforts hecould not obtain release by death, he promised to give furtherinformation against a number of other persons; and, having inducedHippias to give him his hand to confirm his word, as soon as he hadhold of it he reviled him for giving his hand to the murderer of hisbrother, till Hippias, in a frenzy of rage, lost control of himselfand snatched out his dagger and dispatched him.Part 19After this event the tyranny became much harsher. In consequenceof his vengeance for his brother, and of the execution andbanishment of a large number of persons, Hippias became a distrustedand an embittered man. About three years after the death ofHipparchus, finding his position in the city insecure, he set aboutfortifying Munichia, with the intention of establishing himself there.While he was still engaged on this work, however, he was expelled byCleomenes, king of Lacedaemon, in consequence of the Spartans beingcontinually incited by oracles to overthrow the tyranny. These oracleswere obtained in the following way. The Athenian exiles, headed by theAlcmeonidae, could not by their own power effect their return, butfailed continually in their attempts. Among their other failures, theyfortified a post in Attica, Lipsydrium, above Mt. Parnes, and werethere joined by some partisans from the city; but they were besiegedby the tyrants and reduced to surrender. After this disaster thefollowing became a popular drinking song:Ah! Lipsydrium, faithless friend!Lo, what heroes to death didst send,Nobly born and great in deed!Well did they prove themselves at needOf noble sires a noble seed.Having failed, then, in very other method, they took the contractfor rebuilding the temple at Delphi, thereby obtaining ample funds,which they employed to secure the help of the Lacedaemonians. All thistime the Pythia kept continually enjoining on the Lacedaemonians whocame to consult the oracle, that they must free Athens; till finallyshe succeeded in impelling the Spartans to that step, although thehouse of Pisistratus was connected with them by ties of hospitality.The resolution of the Lacedaemonians was, howeve

r, at least equallydue to the friendship which had been formed between the house ofPisistratus and Argos. Accordingly they first sent Anchimolus by seaat the head of an army; but he was defeated and killed, through thearrival of Cineas of Thessaly to support the sons of Pisistratuswith a force of a thousand horsemen. Then, being roused to anger bythis disaster, they sent their king, Cleomenes, by land at the head ofa larger force; and he, after defeating the Thessalian cavalry whenthey attempted to intercept his march into Attica, shut up Hippiaswithin what was known as the Pelargic wall and blockaded him therewith the assistance of the Athenians. While he was sitting down beforethe place, it so happened that the sons of the Pisistratidae werecaptured in an attempt to slip out; upon which the tyrants capitulatedon condition of the safety of their children, and surrendered theAcropolis to the Athenians, five days being first allowed them toremove their effects. This took place in the archonship ofHarpactides, after they had held the tyranny for about seventeen yearssince their father's death, or in all, including the period of theirfather's rule, for nine-and-forty years.Part 20After the overthrow of the tyranny, the rival leaders in the statewere Isagoras son of Tisander, a partisan of the tyrants, andCleisthenes, who belonged to the family of the Alcmeonidae.Cleisthenes, being beaten in the political clubs, called in the peopleby giving the franchise to the masses. Thereupon Isagoras, findinghimself left inferior in power, invited Cleomenes, who was united tohim by ties of hospitality, to return to Athens, and persuaded himto 'drive out the pollution', a plea derived from the fact that theAlcmeonidae were suppposed to be under the curse of pollution. On thisCleisthenes retired from the country, and Cleomenes, entering Atticawith a small force, expelled, as polluted, seven hundred Athenianfamilies. Having effected this, he next attempted to dissolve theCouncil, and to set up Isagoras and three hundred of his partisansas the supreme power in the state. The Council, however, resisted, thepopulace flocked together, and Cleomenes and Isagoras, with theiradherents, took refuge in the Acropolis. Here the people sat downand besieged them for two days; and on the third they agreed to letCleomenes and all his followers de art, while they summonedCleisthenes and the other exiles back to Athens. When the people hadthus obtained the command of affairs, Cleisthenes was their chiefand popular leader. And this was natural; for the Alcmeonidae wereperhaps the chief cause of the expulsion of the tyrants, and for thegreater part of their rule were at perpetual war with them. But evenearlier than the attempts of the Alcmeonidae, one Cedon made an attackon the tyrants; when there came another popular drinking song,addressed to him:Pour a health yet a

gain, boy, to Cedon; forget not this duty to do,If a health is an honour befitting the name of a good man and true.Part 21The people, therefore, had good reason to place confidence inCleisthenes. Accordingly, now that he was the popular leader, threeyears after the expulsion of the tyrants, in the archonship ofIsagoras, his first step was to distribute the whole population intoten tribes in place of the existing four, with the object ofintermixing the members of the different tribes, and so securingthat more persons might have a share in the franchise. From this arosethe saying 'Do not look at the tribes', addressed to those whowished to scrutinize the lists of the old families. Next he made theCouncil to consist of five hundred members instead of four hundred,each tribe now contributing fifty, whereas formerly each had sent ahundred. The reason why he did not organize the people into twelvetribes was that he might not have to use the existing division intotrittyes; for the four tribes had twelve trittyes, so that he wouldnot have achieved his object of redistributing the population in freshcombinations. Further, he divided the country into thirty groups ofdemes, ten from the districts about the city, ten from the coast,and ten from the interior. These he called trittyes; and he assignedthree of them by lot to each tribe, in such a way that each shouldhave one portion in each of these three localities. All who lived inany given deme he declared fellow-demesmen, to the end that the newcitizens might not be exposed by the habitual use of family names, butthat men might be officially described by the names of their demes;and accordingly it is by the names of their demes that the Atheniansspeak of one another. He also instituted Demarchs, who had the sameduties as the previously existing Naucrari,-the demes being made totake the place of the naucraries. He gave names to the demes, somefrom the localities to which they belonged, some from the personswho founded them, since some of the areas no longer corresponded tolocalities possessing names. On the other hand he allowed every one toretain his family and clan and religious rites according toancestral custom. The names given to the tribes were the ten which thePythia appointed out of the hundred selected national heroes.Part 22By these reforms the constitution became much more democratic thanthat of Solon. The laws of Solon had been obliterated by disuse duringthe period of the tyranny, while Cleisthenes substituted new ones withthe object of securing the goodwill of the masses. Among these was thelaw concerning ostracism. Four year after the establishment of thissystem, in the archonship of Hermocreon, they first imposed upon theCouncil of Five Hundred the oath which they take to the present day.Next they began to elect the generals by tribes, one from eachtribe, while the Polemarch

was the commander of the whole army.Then, eleven years later, in the archonship of Phaenippus they won thebattle of Marathon; and two years after this victory, when thepeople had now gained self-confidence, they for the first time madeuse of the law of ostracism. This had originally been passed as aprecaution against men in high office, because Pisistratus tookadvantage of his position as a popular leader and general to makehimself tyrant; and the first person ostracized was one of hisrelatives, Hipparchus son of Charmus, of the deme of Collytus, thevery person on whose account especially Cleisthenes had enacted thelaw, as he wished to get rid of him. Hitherto, however, he hadescaped; for the Athenians, with the usual leniency of thedemocracy, allowed all the partisans of the tyrants, who had notjoined in their evil deeds in the time of the troubles to remain inthe city; and the chief and leader of these was Hipparchus. Then inthe very next year, in the archonship of Telesinus, they for the firsttime since the tyranny elected, tribe by tribe, the nine Archons bylot out of the five hundred candidates selected by the demes, allthe earlier ones having been elected by vote; and in the same yearMegacles son of Hippocrates, of the deme of Alopece, was ostracized.Thus for three years they continued to ostracize the friends of thetyrants, on whose account the law had been passed; but in thefollowing year they began to remove others as well, including anyone who seemed to be more powerful than was expedient. The firstperson unconnected with the tyrants who was ostracized wasXanthippus son of Ariphron. Two years later, in the archonship ofNicodemus, the mines of Maroneia were discovered, and the state made aprofit of a hundred talents from the working of them. Some personsadvised the people to make a distribution of the money amongthemselves, but this was prevented by Themistocles. He refused tosay on what he proposed to spend the money, but he bade them lend itto the hundred richest men in Athens, one talent to each, and then, ifthe manner in which it was employed pleased the people, theexpenditure should be charged to the state, but otherwise the stateshould receive the sum back from those to whom it was lent. On theseterms he received the money and with it he had a hundred triremesbuilt, each of the hundred individuals building one; and it was withthese ships that they fought the battle of Salamis against thebarbarians. About this time Aristides the son of Lysimachus wasostracized. Three years later, however, in the archonship ofHypsichides, all the ostracized persons were recalled, on account ofthe advance of the army of Xerxes; and it was laid down for the futurethat persons under sentence of ostracism must live between Geraestusand Scyllaeum, on pain of losing their civic rights irrevocably.Part 23So far, then, had the city progressed by this ti

me, growinggradually with the growth of the democracy; but after the Persian warsthe Council of Areopagus once more developed strength and assumedthe control of the state. It did not acquire this supremacy byvirtue of any formal decree, but because it had been the cause ofthe battle of Salamis being fought. When the generals were utterlyat a loss how to meet the crisis and made proclamation that everyone should see to his own safety, the Areopagus provided a donation ofmoney, distributing eight drachmas to each member of the ships' crews,and so prevailed on them to go on board. On these grounds people bowedto its prestige; and during this period Athens was welladministered. At this time they devoted themselves to theprosecution of the war and were in high repute among the Greeks, sothat the command by sea was conferred upon them, in spite of theopposition of the Lacedaemonians. The leaders of the people duringthis period were Aristides, of Lysimachus, and Themistocles, son ofLysimachus, and Themistocles, son of Neocles, of whom the latterappeared to devote himself to the conduct of war, while the former hadthe reputation of being a clever statesman and the most upright man ofhis time. Accordingly the one was usually employed as general, theother as political adviser. The rebuilding of the fortificationsthey conducted in combination, although they were political opponents;but it was Aristides who, seizing the opportunity afforded by thediscredit brought upon the Lacedaemonians by Pausanias, guided thepublic policy in the matter of the defection of the Ionian states fromthe alliance with Sparta. It follows that it was he who made the firstassessment of tribute from the various allied states, two yearsafter the battle of Salamis, in the archonship of Timosthenes; andit was he who took the oath of offensive and defensive alliance withthe Ionians, on which occasion they cast the masses of iron into thesea.Part 24After this, seeing the state growing in confidence and much wealthaccumulated, he advised the people to lay hold of the leadership ofthe league, and to quit the country districts and settle in thecity. He pointed out to them that all would be able to gain a livingthere, some by service in the army, others in the garrisons, others bytaking a part in public affairs; and in this way they would secure theleadership. This advice was taken; and when the people had assumed thesupreme control they proceeded to treat their allies in a moreimperious fashion, with the exception of the Chians, Lesbians, andSamians. These they maintained to protect their empire, leavingtheir constitutions untouched, and allowing them to retain whateverdominion they then possessed. They also secured an ample maintenancefor the mass of the population in the way which Aristides hadpointed out to them. Out of the proceeds of the tributes and the taxesand

the contributions of the allies more than twenty thousandpersons were maintained. There were 6,000 jurymen, 1,600 bowmen, 1,200Knights, 500 members of the Council, 500 guards of the dockyards,besides fifty guards in the Acropolis. There were some 700 magistratesat home, and some 700 abroad. Further, when they subsequently wentto war, there were in addition 2,500 heavy-armed troops, twentyguard-ships, and other ships which collected the tributes, withcrews amounting to 2,000 men, selected by lot; and besides these therewere the persons maintained at the Prytaneum, and orphans, andgaolers, since all these were supported by the state.Part 25Such was the way in which the people earned their livelihood. Thesupremacy of the Areopagus lasted for about seventeen years afterthe Persian wars, although gradually declining. But as the strength ofthe masses increased, Ephialtes, son of Sophonides, a man with areputation for incorruptibility and public virtue, who had becomethe leader of the people, made an attack upon that Council. First ofall he ruined many of its members by bringing actions against themwith reference to their administration. Then, in the archonship ofConon, he stripped the Council of all the acquired prerogatives fromwhich it derived its guardianship of the constitution, and assignedsome of them to the Council of Five Hundred, and others to theAssembly and the law-courts. In this revolution he was assisted byThemistocles, who was himself a member of the Areopagus, but wasexpecting to be tried before it on a charge of treasonable dealingswith Persia. This made him anxious that it should be overthrown, andaccordingly he warned Ephialtes that the Council intended to arresthim, while at the same time he informed the Areopagites that hewould reveal to them certain persons who were conspiring to subvertthe constitution. He then conducted the representatives delegated bythe Council to the residence of Ephialtes, promising to show themthe conspirators who assembled there, and proceeded to converse withthem in an earnest manner. Ephialtes, seeing this, was seized withalarm and took refuge in suppliant guise at the altar. Every one wasastounded at the occurrence, and presently, when the Council of FiveHundred met, Ephialtes and Themistocles together proceeded to denouncethe Areopagus to them. This they repeated in similar fashion in theAssembly, until they succeeded in depriving it of its power. Notlong afterwards, however, Ephialtes was assassinated by Aristodicus ofTanagra. In this way was the Council of Areopagus deprived of itsguardianship of the state.Part 26After this revolution the administration of the state became moreand more lax, in consequence of the eager rivalry of candidates forpopular favour. During this period the moderate party, as it happened,had no real chief, their leader being Cimon son of Miltiades, whowas a com

paratively young man, and had been late in entering publiclife; and at the same time the general populace suffered greatlosses by war. The soldiers for active service were selected at thattime from the roll of citizens, and as the generals were men of nomilitary experience, who owed their position solely to their familystanding, it continually happened that some two or three thousand ofthe troops perished on an expedition; and in this way the best menalike of the lower and the upper classes were exhausted.Consequently in most matters of administration less heed was paid tothe laws than had formerly been the case. No alteration, however,was made in the method of election of the nine Archons, except thatfive years after the death of Ephialtes it was decided that thecandidates to be submitted to the lot for that office might beselected from the Zeugitae as well as from the higher classes. Thefirst Archon from that class was Mnesitheides. Up to this time all theArchons had been taken from the Pentacosiomedimni and Knights, whilethe Zeugitae were confined to the ordinary magistracies, save where anevasion of the law was overlooked. Four years later, in the archonshipof Lysicrates, thirty 'local justices', as they as they were called,were re-established; and two years afterwards, in the archonship ofAntidotus, consequence of the great increase in the number ofcitizens, it was resolved, on the motion of Pericles, that no oneshould admitted to the franchise who was not of citizen birth byboth parents.Part 27After this Pericles came forward as popular leader, having firstdistinguished himself while still a young man by prosecuting Cimonon the audit of his official accounts as general. Under his auspicesthe constitution became still more democratic. He took away some ofthe privileges of the Areopagus, and, above all, he turned thepolicy of the state in the direction of sea power, which caused themasses to acquire confidence in themselves and consequently to takethe conduct of affairs more and more into their own hands. Moreover,forty-eight years after the battle of Salamis, in the archonship ofPythodorus, the Peloponnesian war broke out, during which the populacewas shut up in the city and became accustomed to gain its livelihoodby military service, and so, partly voluntarily and partlyinvoluntarily, determined to assume the administration of the stateitself. Pericles was also the first to institute pay for service inthe law-courts, as a bid for popular favour to counterbalance thewealth of Cimon. The latter, having private possessions on a regalscale, not only performed the regular public services magnificently,but also maintained a large number of his fellow-demesmen. Anymember of the deme of Laciadae could go every day to Cimon's house andthere receive a reasonable provision; while his estate was guardedby no fences, so that any one who liked might

help himself to thefruit from it. Pericles' private property was quite unequal to thismagnificence and accordingly he took the advice of Damonides of Oia(who was commonly supposed to be the person who prompted Pericles inmost of his measures, and was therefore subsequently ostracized),which was that, as he was beaten in the matter of private possessions,he should make gifts to the people from their own property; andaccordingly he instituted pay for the members of the juries. Somecritics accuse him of thereby causing a deterioration in the characterof the juries, since it was always the common people who putthemselves forward for selection as jurors, rather than the men ofbetter position. Moreover, bribery came into existence after this, thefirst person to introduce it being Anytus, after his command at Pylos.He was prosecuted by certain individuals on account of his loss ofPylos, but escaped by bribing the jury.Part 28So long, however, as Pericles was leader of the people, thingswent tolerably well with the state; but when he was dead there was agreat change for the worse. Then for the first time did the peoplechoose a leader who was of no reputation among men of good standing,whereas up to this time such men had always been found as leaders ofthe democracy. The first leader of the people, in the very beginningof things, was Solon, and the second was Pisistratus, both of them menof birth and position. After the overthrow of the tyrants there wasCleisthenes, a member of the house of the Alcmeonidae; and he had norival opposed to him after the expulsion of the party of Isagoras.After this Xanthippus was the leader of the people, and Miltiades ofthe upper class. Then came Themistocles and Aristides, and afterthem Ephialtes as leader of the people, and Cimon son of Miltiadesof the wealthier class. Pericles followed as leader of the people, andThucydides, who was connected by marriage with Cimon, of theopposition. After the death of Pericles, Nicias, who subsequently fellin Sicily, appeared as leader of the aristocracy, and Cleon son ofCleaenetus of the people. The latter seems, more than any one else, tohave been the cause of the corruption of the democracy by his wildundertakings; and he was the first to use unseemly shouting and coarseabuse on the Bema, and to harangue the people with his cloak girt upshort about him, whereas all his predecessors had spoken decentlyand in order. These were succeeded by Theramenes son of Hagnon asleader of the one party, and the lyre-maker Cleophon of the people. Itwas Cleophon who first granted the twoobol donation for the theatricalperformances, and for some time it continued to be given; but thenCallicrates of Paeania ousted him by promising to add a third obolto the sum. Both of these persons were subsequently condemned todeath; for the people, even if they are deceived for a time, in theend gene

rally come to detest those who have beguiled them into anyunworthy action. After Cleophon the popular leadership was occupiedsuccessively by the men who chose to talk the biggest and pander themost to the tastes of the majority, with their eyes fixed only onthe interests of the moment. The best statesmen at Athens, after thoseof early times, seem to have been Nicias, Thucydides, andTheramenes. As to Nicias and Thucydides, nearly every one agreesthat they were not merely men of birth and character, but alsostatesmen, and that they ruled the state with paternal care. On themerits of Theramenes opinion is divided, because it so happened thatin his time public affairs were in a very stormy state. But thosewho give their opinion deliberately find him, not, as his criticsfalsely assert, overthrowing every kind of constitution, butsupporting every kind so long as it did not transgress laws; thusshowing that he was able, as every good citizen should be, to liveunder any form of constitution, while he refused to countenanceillegality and was its constant enemy.Part 29So long as the fortune of the war continued even, the Athenianspreserved the democracy; but after the disaster in Sicily, when theLacedaemonians had gained the upper hand through their alliance withthe king of Persia, they were compelled to abolish the democracy andestablish in its place the constitution of the Four Hundred. Thespeech recommending this course before the vote was made byMelobius, and the motion was proposed by Pythodorus of Anaphlystus;but the real argument which persuaded the majority was the belief thatthe king of Persia was more likely to form an alliance with them ifthe constitution were on an oligarchical basis. The motion ofPythodorus was to the following effect. The popular Assembly was toelect twenty persons, over forty years of age, who, in conjunctionwith the existing ten members of the Committee of Public Safety, aftertaking an oath that they would frame such measures as they thoughtbest for the state, should then prepare proposals for the public.safety. In addition, any other person might make proposals, so that ofall the schemes before them the people might choose the best.Cleitophon concurred with the motion of Pythodorus, but moved that thecommittee should also investigate the ancient laws enacted byCleisthenes when he created the democracy, in order that they mighthave these too before them and so be in a position to decide wisely;his suggestion being that the constitution of Cleisthenes was notreally democratic, but closely akin to that of Solon. When thecommittee was elected, their first proposal was that the Prytanesshould be compelled to put to the vote any motion that was offeredon behalf of the public safety. Next they abolished all indictmentsfor illegal proposals, all impeachments and pubic prosecutions, inorder that every Athenian should be free to

give his counsel on thesituation, if he chose; and they decreed that if any person imposeda fine on any other for his acts in this respect, or prosecuted him orsummoned him before the courts, he should, on an information beinglaid against him, be summarily arrested and brought before thegenerals, who should deliver him to the Eleven to be put to death.After these preliminary measures, they drew up the constitution in thefollowing manner. The revenues of the state were not to be spent onany purpose except the war. All magistrates should serve withoutremuneration for the period of the war, except the nine Archons andthe Prytanes for the time being, who should each receive three obols aday. The whole of the rest of the administration was to becommitted, for the period of the war, to those Athenians who were mostcapable of serving the state personally or pecuniarily, to thenumber of not less than five thousand. This body was to have fullpowers, to the extent even of making treaties with whomsoever theywilled; and ten representatives, over forty years of age, were to beelected from each tribe to draw up the list of the Five Thousand,after taking an oath on a full and perfect sacrifice.Part 30These were the recommendations of the committee; and when they hadbeen ratified the Five Thousand elected from their own number ahundred commissioners to draw up the constitution. They, on theirappointment, drew up and produced the following recommendations. Thereshould be a Council, holding office for a year, consisting of men overthirty years of age, serving without pay. To this body should belongthe Generals, the nine Archons, the Amphictyonic Registrar(Hieromnemon), the Taxiarchs, the Hipparchs, the Phylarch, thecommanders of garrisons, the Treasurers of Athena and the othergods, ten in number, the Hellenic Treasurers (Hellenotamiae), theTreasurers of the other non-sacred moneys, to the number of twenty,the ten Commissioners of Sacrifices (Hieropoei), and the tenSuperintendents of the mysteries. All these were to be appointed bythe Council from a larger number of selected candidates, chosen fromits members for the time being. The other offices were all to befilled by lot, and not from the members of the Council. The HellenicTreasurers who actually administered the funds should not sit with theCouncil. As regards the future, four Councils were to be created, ofmen of the age already mentioned, and one of these was to be chosen bylot to take office at once, while the others were to receive it inturn, in the order decided by the lot. For this purpose the hundredcommissioners were to distribute themselves and all the rest asequally as possible into four parts, and cast lots for precedence, andthe selected body should hold office for a year. They were toadminister that office as seemed to them best, both with referenceto the safe custody and due expend

iture of the finances, and generallywith regard to all other matters to the best of their ability. If theydesired to take a larger number of persons into counsel, each membermight call in one assistant of his own choice, subject to the samequalification of age. The Council was to sit once every five days,unless there was any special need for more frequent sittings. Thecasting of the lot for the Council was to be held by the nine Archons;votes on divisions were to be counted by five tellers chosen by lotfrom the members of the Council, and of these one was to be selectedby lot every day to act as president. These five persons were tocast lots for precedence between the parties wishing to appearbefore the Council, giving the first place to sacred matters, thesecond to heralds, the third to embassies, and the fourth to all othersubjects; but matters concerning the war might be dealt with, on themotion of the generals, whenever there was need, without balloting.Any member of the Council who did not enter the Council-house at thetime named should be fined a drachma for each day, unless he wasaway on leave of absence from the Council.Part 31Such was the constitution which they drew up for the time to come,but for the immediate present they devised the following scheme. Thereshould be a Council of Four Hundred, as in the ancient constitution,forty from each tribe, chosen out of candidates of more than thirtyyears of age, selected by the members of the tribes. This Councilshould appoint the magistrates and draw up the form of oath which theywere to take; and in all that concerned the laws, in the examinationof official accounts, and in other matters generally, they might actaccording to their discretion. They must, however, observe the lawsthat might be enacted with reference to the constitution of the state,and had no power to alter them nor to pass others. The generals shouldbe provisionally elected from the whole body of the Five Thousand, butso soon as the Council came into existence it was to hold anexamination of military equipments, and thereon elect ten persons,together with a secretary, and the persons thus elected should holdoffice during the coming year with full powers, and should have theright, whenever they desired it, of joining in the deliberations ofthe Council. The Five thousand was also to elect a single Hipparch andten Phylarchs; but for the future the Council was to elect theseofficers according to the regulations above laid down. No office,except those of member of the Council and of general, might be heldmore than once, either by the first occupants or by theirsuccessors. With reference to the future distribution of the FourHundred into the four successive sections, the hundred commissionersmust divide them whenever the time comes for the citizens to join inthe Council along with the rest.Part 32The hundred co

mmissioners appointed by the Five Thousand drew up theconstitution as just stated; and after it had been ratified by thepeople, under the presidency of Aristomachus, the existing Council,that of the year of Callias, was dissolved before it had completed itsterm of office. It was dissolved on the fourteenth day of the monthThargelion, and the Four Hundred entered into office on thetwenty-first; whereas the regular Council, elected by lot, ought tohave entered into office on the fourteenth of Scirophorion. Thus wasthe oligarchy established, in the archonship of Callias, just abouta hundred years after the expulsion of the tyrants. The chiefpromoters of the revolution were Pisander, Antiphon, and Theramenes,all of them men of good birth and with high reputations for abilityand judgement. When, however, this constitution had beenestablished, the Five Thousand were only nominally selected, and theFour Hundred, together with the ten officers on whom full powers hadbeen conferred, occupied the Council-house and really administered thegovernment. They began by sending ambassadors to the Lacedaemoniansproposing a cessation of the war on the basis of the existingPosition; but as the Lacedaemonians refused to listen to them unlessthey would also abandon the command of the sea, they broke off thenegotiations.Part 33For about four months the constitution of the Four Hundred lasted,and Mnasilochus held office as Archon of their nomination for twomonths of the year of Theopompus, who was Archon for the remainingten. On the loss of the naval battle of Eretria, however, and therevolt of the whole of Euboea except Oreum, the indignation of thepeople was greater than at any of the earlier disasters, since theydrew far more supplies at this time from Euboea than from Atticaitself. Accordingly they deposed the Four Hundred and committed themanagement of affairs to the Five Thousand, consisting of personsPossessing a military equipment. At the same time they voted thatpay should not be given for any public office. The persons chieflyresponsible for the revolution were Aristocrates and Theramenes, whodisapproved of the action of the Four Hundred in retaining thedirection of affairs entirely in their own hands, and referringnothing to the Five Thousand. During this period the constitution ofthe state seems to have been admirable, since it was a time of war andthe franchise was in the hands of those who possessed a militaryequipment.Part 34The people, however, in a very short time deprived the Five Thousandof their monopoly of the government. Then, six years after theoverthrow of the Four Hundred, in the archonship of Callias of Angele,battle of Arginusae took place, of which the results were, first, thatthe ten generals who had gained the victory were all condemned by asingle decision, owing to the people being led astray by persons whoaroused their in

dignation; though, as a matter of fact, some of thegenerals had actually taken no part in the battle, and others werethemselves picked up by other vessels. Secondly, when theLacedaemonians proposed to evacuate Decelea and make peace on thebasis of the existing position, although some of the Athenianssupported this proposal, the majority refused to listen to them. Inthis they were led astray by Cleophon, who appeared in the Assemblydrunk and wearing his breastplate, and prevented peace being made,declaring that he would never accept peace unless the Lacedaemoniansabandoned their claims on all the cities allied with them. Theymismanaged their opportunity then, and in a very short time theylearnt their mistake. The next year, in the archonship of Alexias,they suffered the disaster of Aegospotami, the consequence of whichwas that Lysander became master of the city, and set up the Thirtyas its governors. He did so in the following manner. One of theterms of peace stipulated that the state should be governedaccording to 'the ancient constitution'. Accordingly the popular partytried to preserve the democracy, while that part of the upper classwhich belonged to the political clubs, together with the exiles whohad returned since the peace, aimed at an oligarchy, and those whowere not members of any club, though in other respects they consideredthemselves as good as any other citizens, were anxious to restorethe ancient constitution. The latter class included Archinus,Anytus, Cleitophon, Phormisius, and many others, but their mostprominent leader was Theramenes. Lysander, however, threw hisinfluence on the side of the oligarchical party, and the popularAssembly was compelled by sheer intimidation to pass a voteestablishing the oligarchy. The motion to this effect was proposedby Dracontides of Aphidna.Part 35In this way were the Thirty established in power, in thearchonship of Pythodorus. As soon, however, as they were masters ofthe city, they ignored all the resolutions which had been passedrelating to the organization of the constitution, but after appointinga Council of Five Hundred and the other magistrates out of athousand selected candidates, and associating with themselves tenArchons in Piraeus, eleven superintendents of the prison, and threehundred 'lash-bearers' as attendants, with the help of these they keptthe city under their own control. At first, indeed, they behavedwith moderation towards the citizens and pretended to administer thestate according to the ancient constitution. In pursuance of thispolicy they took down from the hill of Areopagus the laws of Ephialtesand Archestratus relating to the Areopagite Council; they alsorepealed such of the statutes of Solon as were obscure, andabolished the supreme power of the law-courts. In this they claimed tobe restoring the constitution and freeing it from obscurities; as, forinstance, by

making the testator free once for all to leave hisproperty as he pleased, and abolishing the existing limitations incases of insanity, old age, and undue female influence, in orderthat no opening might be left for professional accusers. In othermatters also their conduct was similar. At first, then, they actedon these lines, and they destroyed the professional accusers and thosemischievous and evil-minded persons who, to the great detriment of thedemocracy, had attached themselves to it in order to curry favour withit. With all of this the city was much pleased, and thought that theThirty were doing it with the best of motives. But so soon as they hadgot a firmer hold on the city, they spared no class of citizens, butput to death any persons who were eminent for wealth or birth orcharacter. Herein they aimed at removing all whom they had reason tofear, while they also wished to lay hands on their possessions; and ina short time they put to death not less than fifteen hundred persons.Part 36Theramenes, however, seeing the city thus falling into ruin, wasdispleased with their proceedings, and counselled them to cease suchunprincipled conduct and let the better classes have a share in thegovernment. At first they resisted his advice, but when hisproposals came to be known abroad, and the masses began to associatethemselves with him, they were seized with alarm lest he should makehimself the leader of the people and destroy their despotic power.Accordingly they drew up a list of three thousand citizens, to whomthey announced that they would give a share in the constitution.Theramenes, however, criticized this scheme also, first on theground that, while proposing to give all respectable citizens ashare in the constitution, they were actually giving it only tothree thousand persons, as though all merit were confined withinthat number; and secondly because they were doing two inconsistentthings, since they made the government rest on the basis of force, andyet made the governors inferior in strength to the governed.However, they took no notice of his criticisms, and for a long timeput off the publication of the list of the Three Thousand and keptto themselves the names of those who had been placed upon it; andevery time they did decide to publish it they proceeded to strikeout some of those who had been included in it, and insert others whohad been omitted.Part 37Now when winter had set in, Thrasybulus and the exiles occupiedPhyle, and the force which the Thirty led out to attack them metwith a reverse. Thereupon the Thirty decided to disarm the bulk of thepopulation and to get rid of Theramenes; which they did in thefollowing way. They introduced two laws into the Council, which theycommanded it to pass; the first of them gave the Thirty absolute powerto put to death any citizen who was not included in the list of theThree Thousand,

while the second disqualified all persons fromparticipation in the franchise who should have assisted in thedemolition of the fort of Eetioneia, or have acted in any wayagainst the Four Hundred who had organized the previous oligarchy.Theramenes had done both, and accordingly, when these laws wereratified, he became excluded from the franchise and the Thirty hadfull power to put him to death. Theramenes having been thus removed,they disarmed all the people except the Three Thousand, and in everyrespect showed a great advance in cruelty and crime. They also sentambassadors to Lacedaemonian to blacken the character of Theramenesand to ask for help; and the Lacedaemonians, in answer to theirappeal, sent Callibius as military governor with about seven hundredtroops, who came and occupied the Acropolis.Part 38These events were followed by the occupation of Munichia by theexiles from Phyle, and their victory over the Thirty and theirpartisans. After the fight the party of the city retreated, and nextday they held a meeting in the marketplace and deposed the Thirty, andelected ten citizens with full powers to bring the war to atermination. When, however, the Ten had taken over the government theydid nothing towards the object for which they were elected, but sentenvoys to Lacedaemonian to ask for help and to borrow money.Further, finding that the citizens who possessed the franchise weredispleased at their proceedings, they were afraid lest they shouldbe deposed, and consequently, in order to strike terror into them(in which design they succeeded), they arrested Demaretus, one ofthe most eminent citizens, and put him to death. This gave them a firmhold on the government, and they also had the support of Callibius andhis Peloponnesians, together with several of the Knights; for someof the members of this class were the most zealous among thecitizens to prevent the return of the exiles from Phyle. When,however, the party in Piraeus and Munichia began to gain the upperhand in the war, through the defection of the whole populace tothem, the party in the city deposed the original Ten, and electedanother Ten, consisting of men of the highest repute. Under theiradministration, and with their active and zealous cooperation, thetreaty of reconciliation was made and the populace returned to thecity. The most prominent members of this board were Rhinon ofPaeania and Phayllus of Acherdus, who, even before the arrival ofPausanias, opened negotiations with the party in Piraeus, and afterhis arrival seconded his efforts to bring about the return of theexiles. For it was Pausanias, the king of the Lacedaemonians, whobrought the peace and reconciliation to a fulfillment, inconjunction with the ten commissioners of arbitration who arrivedlater from Lacedaemonian, at his own earnest request. Rhinon and hiscolleagues received a vote of thanks for the goodwill shown by

them tothe people, and though they received their charge under an oligarchyand handed in their accounts under a democracy, no one, either ofthe party that had stayed in the city or of the exiles that hadreturned from the Piraeus, brought any complaint against them. Onthe contrary, Rhinon was immediately elected general on account of hisconduct in this office.Part 39This reconciliation was effected in the archonship of Eucleides,on the following terms. All persons who, having remained in the cityduring the troubles, were now anxious to leave it, were to be freeto settle at Eleusis, retaining their civil rights and possessing fulland independent powers of self-government, and with the free enjoymentof their own personal property. The temple at Eleusis should be commonground for both parties, and should be under the superintendence ofthe Ceryces, and the Eumolpidae, according to primitive custom. Thesettlers at Eleusis should not be allowed to enter Athens, nor thepeople of Athens to enter Eleusis, except at the season of themysteries, when both parties should be free from these restrictions.The secessionists should pay their share to the fund for the commondefence out of their revenues, just like all the other Athenians. Ifany of the seceding party wished to take a house in Eleusis, thepeople would help them to obtain the consent of the owner; but if theycould not come to terms, they should appoint three valuers on eitherside, and the owner should receive whatever price they should appoint.Of the inhabitants of Eleusis, those whom the secessionists wishedto remain should be allowed to do so. The list of those who desired tosecede should be made up within ten days after the taking of the oathsin the case of persons already in the country, and their actualdeparture should take place within twenty days; persons at present outof the country should have the same terms allowed to them aftertheir return. No one who settled at Eleusis should be capable ofholding any office in Athens until he should again register himself onthe roll as a resident in the city. Trials for homicide, including allcases in which one party had either killed or wounded another,should be conducted according to ancestral practice. There should be ageneral amnesty concerning past events towards all persons exceptthe Thirty, the Ten, the Eleven, and the magistrates in Piraeus; andthese too should be included if they should submit their accounts inthe usual way. Such accounts should be given by the magistrates inPiraeus before a court of citizens rated in Piraeus, and by themagistrates in the city before a court of those rated in the city.On these terms those who wished to do so might secede. Each partywas to repay separately the money which it had borrowed for the war.Part 40When the reconciliation had taken place on these terms, those whohad fought on the side

of the Thirty felt considerableapprehensions, and a large number intended to secede. But as theyput off entering their names till the last moment, as people willdo, Archinus, observing their numbers, and being anxious to retainthem as citizens, cut off the remaining days during which the listshould have remained open; and in this way many persons were compelledto remain, though they did so very unwillingly until they recoveredconfidence. This is one point in which Archinus appears to haveacted in a most statesmanlike manner, and another was his subsequentprosecution of Thrasybulus on the charge of illegality, for a motionby which he proposed to confer the franchise on all who had taken partin the return from Piraeus, although some of them were notoriouslyslaves. And yet a third such action was when one of the returnedexiles began to violate the amnesty, whereupon Archinus haled him tothe Council and persuaded them to execute him without trial, tellingthem that now they would have to show whether they wished topreserve the democracy and abide by the oaths they had taken; for ifthey let this man escape they would encourage others to imitate him,while if they executed him they would make an example for all to learnby. And this was exactly what happened; for after this man had beenput to death no one ever again broke the amnesty. On the contrary, theAthenians seem, both in public and in private, to have behaved inthe most unprecedentedly admirable and public-spirited way withreference to the preceding troubles. Not only did they blot out allmemory of former offences, but they even repaid to theLacedaemonians out of the public purse the money which the Thirtyhad borrowed for the war, although the treaty required each party, theparty of the city and the party of Piraeus, to pay its own debtsseparately. This they did because they thought it was a necessaryfirst step in the direction of restoring harmony; but in other states,so far from the democratic parties making advances from their ownpossessions, they are rather in the habit of making a generalredistribution of the land. A final reconciliation was made with thesecessionists at Eleusis two years after the secession, in thearchonship of Xenaenetus.Part 41This, however, took place at a later date; at the time of which weare speaking the people, having secured the control of the state,established the constitution which exists at the present day.Pythodorus was Archon at the time, but the democracy seems to haveassumed the supreme power with perfect justice, since it hadeffected its own return by its own exertions. This was the eleventhchange which had taken place in the constitution of Athens. Thefirst modification of the primaeval condition of things was when Ionand his companions brought the people together into a community, forthen the people was first divided into the four tribes, and thetribe

-kings were created. Next, and first after this, having nowsome semblance of a constitution, was that which took place in thereign of Theseus, consisting in a slight deviation from absolutemonarchy. After this came the constitution formed under Draco, whenthe first code of laws was drawn up. The third was that which followedthe civil war, in the time of Solon; from this the democracy tookits rise. The fourth was the tyranny of Pisistratus; the fifth theconstitution of Cleisthenes, after the overthrow of the tyrants, ofa more democratic character than that of Solon. The sixth was thatwhich followed on the Persian wars, when the Council of Areopagushad the direction of the state. The seventh, succeeding this, wasthe constitution which Aristides sketched out, and which Ephialtesbrought to completion by overthrowing the Areopagite Council; underthis the nation, misled by the demagogues, made the most seriousmistakes in the interest of its maritime empire. The eighth was theestablishment of the Four Hundred, followed by the ninth, the restoreddemocracy. The tenth was the tyranny of the Thirty and the Ten. Theeleventh was that which followed the return from Phyle and Piraeus;and this has continued from that day to this, with continualaccretions of power to the masses. The democracy has made itselfmaster of everything and administers everything by its votes in theAssembly and by the law-courts, in which it holds the supreme power.Even the jurisdiction of the Council has passed into the hands ofthe people at large; and this appears to be a judicious change,since small bodies are more open to corruption, whether by actualmoney or influence, than large ones. At first they refused to allowpayment for attendance at the Assembly; but the result was that peopledid not attend. Consequently, after the Prytanes had tried manydevices in vain in order to induce the populace to come and ratify thevotes, Agyrrhius, in the first instance, made a provision of oneobol a day, which Heracleides of Clazomenae, nicknamed 'the king',increased to two obols, and Agyrrhius again to three.Part 42The present state of the constitution is as follows. The franchiseis open to all who are of citizen birth by both parents. They areenrolled among the demesmen at the age of eighteen. On the occasion oftheir enrollment the demesmen give their votes on oath, firstwhether the candidates appear to be of the age prescribed by the law(if not, they are dismissed back into the ranks of the boys), andsecondly whether the candidate is free born and of such parentage asthe laws require. Then if they decide that he is not a free man, heappeals to the law-courts, and the demesmen appoint five of theirown number to act as accusers; if the court decides that he has noright to be enrolled, he is sold by the state as a slave, but if hewins his case he has a right to be enrolled among the demesmen wit

houtfurther question. After this the Council examines those who havebeen enrolled, and if it comes to the conclusion that any of them isless than eighteen years of age, it fines the demesmen who enrolledhim. When the youths (Ephebi) have passed this examination, theirfathers meet by their tribes, and appoint on oath three of theirfellow tribesmen, over forty years of age, who, in their opinion,are the best and most suitable persons to have charge of the youths;and of these the Assembly elects one from each tribe as guardian,together with a director, chosen from the general body of Athenians,to control the while. Under the charge of these persons the youthsfirst of all make the circuit of the temples; then they proceed toPiraeus, and some of them garrison Munichia and some the southshore. The Assembly also elects two trainers, with subordinateinstructors, who teach them to fight in heavy armour, to use the bowand javelin, and to discharge a catapult. The guardians receive fromthe state a drachma apiece for their keep, and the youths four obolsapiece. Each guardian receives the allowance for all the members ofhis tribe and buys the necessary provisions for the common stock (theymess together by tribes), and generally superintends everything. Inthis way they spend the first year. The next year, after giving apublic display of their military evolutions, on the occasion whenthe Assembly meets in the theatre, they receive a shield and spearfrom the state; after which they patrol the country and spend theirtime in the forts. For these two years they are on garrison duty,and wear the military cloak, and during this time they are exempt fromall taxes. They also can neither bring an action at law, nor haveone brought against them, in order that they may have no excuse forrequiring leave of absence; though exception is made in cases ofactions concerning inheritances and wards of state, or of anysacrificial ceremony connected with the family. When the two yearshave elapsed they thereupon take their position among the othercitizens. Such is the manner of the enrollment of the citizens and thetraining of the youths.Part 43All the magistrates that are concerned with the ordinary routineof administration are elected by lot, except the Military Treasurer,the Commissioners of the Theoric fund, and the Superintendent ofSprings. These are elected by vote, and hold office from onePanathenaic festival to the next. All military officers are alsoelected by vote.The Council of Five Hundred is elected by lot, fifty from eachtribe. Each tribe holds the office of Prytanes in turn, the orderbeing determined by lot; the first four serve for thirty-six dayseach, the last six for thirty-five, since the reckoning is by lunaryears. The Prytanes for the time being, in the first place, messtogether in the Tholus, and receive a sum of money from the statefor their maintenance;

and, secondly, they convene the meetings of theCouncil and the Assembly. The Council they convene every day, unlessit is a holiday, the Assembly four times in each prytany. It is alsotheir duty to draw up the programme of the business of the Council andto decide what subjects are to be dealt with on each particular da,and where the sitting is to be held. They also draw up the programmefor the meetings of the Assembly. One of these in each prytany iscalled the 'sovereign' Assembly; in this the people have to ratify thecontinuance of the magistrates in office, if they are performing theirduties properly, and to consider the supply of corn and the defence ofthe country. On this day, too, impeachments are introduced by thosewho wish to do so, the lists of property confiscated by the stateare read, and also applications for inheritances and wards of state,so that nothing may pass unclaimed without the cognizance of anyperson concerned. In the sixth prytany, in addition to the businessalready stated, the question is put to the vote whether it isdesirable to hold a vote of ostracism or not; and complaints againstprofessional accusers, whether Athenian or aliens domiciled in Athens,are received, to the number of not more than three of either class,together with cases in which an individual has made some promise tothe people and has not performed it. Another Assembly in eachprytany is assigned to the hearing of petitions, and at this meetingany one is free, on depositing the petitioner's olive-branch, to speakto the people concerning any matter, public or private. The tworemaining meetings are devoted to all other subjects, and the lawsrequire them to deal with three questions connected with religion,three connected with heralds and embassies, and three on secularsubjects. Sometimes questions are brought forward without apreliminary vote of the Assembly to take them into consideration.Heralds and envoys appear first before the Prytanes, and the bearersof dispatches also deliver them to the same officials.Part 44There is a single President of the Prytanes, elected by lot, whopresides for a night and a day; he may not hold the office for morethan that time, nor may the same individual hold it twice. He keepsthe keys of the sanctuaries in which the treasures and publicrecords of the state are preserved, and also the public seal; and heis bound to remain in the Tholus, together with one-third of thePrytanes, named by himself. Whenever the Prytanes convene a meeting ofthe Council or Assembly, he appoints by lot nine Proedri, one fromeach tribe except that which holds the office of Prytanes for the timebeing; and out of these nine he similarly appoints one as President,and hands over the programme for the meeting to them. They take it andsee to the preservation of order, put forward the various subjectswhich are to be considered, decide the res

ults of the votings, anddirect the proceedings generally. They also have power to dismissthe meeting. No one may act as President more than once in the year,but he may be a Proedrus once in each prytany.Elections to the offices of General and Hipparch and all othermilitary commands are held in the Assembly, in such manner as thepeople decide; they are held after the sixth prytany by the firstboard of Prytanes in whose term of office the omens are favourable.There has, however, to be a preliminary consideration by the Councilin this case also.Part 45In former times the Council had full powers to inflict fines andimprisonment and death; but when it had consigned Lysimachus to theexecutioner, and he was sitting in the immediate expectation of death,Eumelides of Alopece rescued him from its hands, maintaining that nocitizen ought to be put to death except on the decision of a courtof law. Accordingly a trial was held in a law-court, and Lysimachuswas acquitted, receiving henceforth the nickname of 'the man fromthe drum-head'; and the people deprived the Council thenceforward ofthe power to inflict death or imprisonment or fine, passing a law thatif the Council condemn any person for an offence or inflict a fine,the Thesmothetae shall bring the sentence or fine before thelaw-court, and the decision of the jurors shall be the final judgementin the matter.The Council passes judgement on nearly all magistrates, especiallythose who have the control of money; its judgement, however, is notfinal, but is subject to an appeal to the lawcourts. Privateindividuals, also, may lay an information against any magistratethey please for not obeying the laws, but here too there is anappeal to the law-courts if the Council declare the charge proved. TheCouncil also examines those who are to be its members for theensuing year, and likewise the nine Archons. Formerly the Councilhad full power to reject candidates for office as unsuitable, butnow they have an appeal to the law-courts. In all these matters,therefore, the Council has no final jurisdiction. It takes, however,preliminary cognizance of all matters brought before the Assembly, andthe Assembly cannot vote on any question unless it has first beenconsidered by the Council and placed on the programme by the Prytanes;since a person who carries a motion in the Assembly is liable to anaction for illegal proposal on these grounds.Part 46The Council also superintends the triremes that are already inexistence, with their tackle and sheds, and builds new triremes orquadriremes, whichever the Assembly votes, with tackle and sheds tomatch. The Assembly appoints master-builders for the ships by vote;and if they do not hand them over completed to the next Council, theold Council cannot receive the customary donation-that beingnormally given to it during its successor's term of office. For thebuilding of

the triremes it appoints ten commissioners, chosen fromits own members. The Council also inspects all public buildings, andif it is of opinion that the state is being defrauded, it reportsthe culprit to the Assembly, and on condemnation hands him over to thelaw-courts.Part 47The Council also co-operates with other magistrates in most of theirduties. First there are the treasurers of Athena, ten in number,elected by lot, one from each tribe. According to the law ofSolon-which is still in force-they must be Pentacosiomedimni, but inpoint of fact the person on whom the lot falls holds the office eventhough he be quite a poor man. These officers take over charge ofthe statue of Athena, the figures of Victory, and all the otherornaments of the temple, together with the money, in the presence ofthe Council. Then there are the Commissioners for Public Contracts(Poletae), ten in number, one chosen by lot from each tribe, whofarm out the public contracts. They lease the mines and taxes, inconjunction with the Military Treasurer and the Commissioners of theTheoric fund, in the presence of the Council, and grant, to thepersons indicated by the vote of the Council, the mines which arelet out by the state, including both the workable ones, which arelet for three years, and those which are let under specialagreements years. They also sell, in the presence of the Council,the property of those who have gone into exile from the court of theAreopagus, and of others whose goods have been confiscated, and thenine Archons ratify the contracts. They also hand over to theCouncil lists of the taxes which are farmed out for the year, enteringon whitened tablets the name of the lessee and the amount paid. Theymake separate lists, first of those who have to pay theirinstalments in each prytany, on ten several tablets, next of those whopay thrice in the year, with a separate tablet for each instalment,and finally of those who pay in the ninth prytany. They also draw up alist of farms and dwellings which have been confiscated and sold byorder of the courts; for these too come within their province. Inthe case of dwellings the value must be paid up in five years, andin that of farms, in ten. The instalments are paid in the ninthprytany. Further, the King-archon brings before the Council the leasesof the sacred enclosures, written on whitened tablets. These too areleased for ten years, and the instalments are paid in the prytany;consequently it is in this prytany that the greatest amount of moneyis collected. The tablets containing the lists of the instalmentsare carried into the Council, and the public clerk takes charge ofthem. Whenever a payment of instalments is to be made he takes fromthe pigeon-holes the precise list of the sums which are to be paid andstruck off on that day, and delivers it to the Receivers-General.The rest are kept apart, in order that no sum m

ay be struck off beforeit is paid.Part 48There are ten Receivers-General (Apodectae), elected by lot, onefrom each tribe. These officers receive the tablets, and strike offthe instalments as they are paid, in the presence of the Council inthe Council-chamber, and give the tablets back to the public clerk. Ifany one fails to pay his instalment, a note is made of it on thetablet; and he is bound to pay double the amount of the deficiency,or, in default, to be imprisoned. The Council has full power by thelaws to exact these payments and to inflict this imprisonment. Theyreceive all the instalments, therefore, on one day, and portion themoney out among the magistrates; and on the next day they bring up thereport of the apportionment, written on a wooden notice-board, andread it out in the Council-chamber, after which they ask publicly inthe Council whether any one knows of any malpractice in reference tothe apportionment, on the part of either a magistrate or a privateindividual, and if any one is charged with malpractice they take avote on it.The Council also elects ten Auditors (Logistae) by lot from itsown members, to audit the accounts of the magistrates for eachprytany. They also elect one Examiner of Accounts (Euthunus) by lotfrom each tribe, with two assessors (Paredri) for each examiner, whoseduty it is to sit at the ordinary market hours, each opposite thestatue of the eponymous hero of his tribe; and if any one wishes toprefer a charge, on either public or private grounds, against anymagistrate who has passed his audit before the law-courts, withinthree days of his having so passed, he enters on a whitened tablet hisown name and that of the magistrate prosecuted, together with themalpractice that is alleged against him. He also appends his claim fora penalty of such amount as seems to him fitting, and gives in therecord to the Examiner. The latter takes it, and if after reading ithe considers it proved he hands it over, if a private case, to thelocal justices who introduce cases for the tribe concerned, while ifit is a public case he enters it on the register of theThesmothetae. Then, if the Thesmothetae accept it, they bring theaccounts of this magistrate once more before the law-court, and thedecision of the jury stands as the final judgement.Part 49The Council also inspects the horses belonging to the state. If aman who has a good horse is found to keep it in bad condition, he ismulcted in his allowance of corn; while those which cannot keep upor which shy and will not stand steady, it brands with a wheel onthe jaw, and the horse so marked is disqualified for service. Italso inspects those who appear to be fit for service as scouts, andany one whom it rejects is deprived of his horse. It also examines theinfantry who serve among the cavalry, and any one whom it rejectsceases to receive his pay. The roll of the cavalry

is drawn up bythe Commissioners of Enrolment (Catalogeis), ten in number, elected bythe Assembly by open vote. They hand over to the Hipparchs andPhylarchs the list of those whom they have enrolled, and theseofficers take it and bring it up before the Council, and there openthe sealed tablet containing the names of the cavalry. If any of thosewho have been on the roll previously make affidavit that they arephysically incapable of cavalry service, they strike them out; thenthey call up the persons newly enrolled, and if any one makesaffidavit that he is either physically or pecuniarily incapable ofcavalry service they dismiss him, but if no such affidavit is made theCouncil vote whether the individual in question is suitable for thepurpose or not. If they vote in the affirmative his name is entered onthe tablet; if not, he is dismissed with the others.Formerly the Council used to decide on the plans for publicbuildings and the contract for making the robe of Athena; but now thiswork is done by a jury in the law-courts appointed by lot, since theCouncil was considered to have shown favouritism in its decisions. TheCouncil also shares with the Military Treasurer the superintendence ofthe manufacture of the images of Victory and the prizes at thePanathenaic festival.The Council also examines infirm paupers; for there is a law whichprovides that persons possessing less than three minas, who are socrippled as to be unable to do any work, are, after examination by theCouncil, to receive two obols a day from the state for theirsupport. A treasurer is appointed by lot to attend to them.The Council also, speaking broadly, cooperates in most of the dutiesof all the other magistrates; and this ends the list of thefunctions of that body.Part 50There are ten Commissioners for Repairs of Temples, elected bylot, who receive a sum of thirty minas from the Receivers-General, andtherewith carry out the most necessary repairs in the temples.There are also ten City Commissioners (Astynomi), of whom fivehold office in Piraeus and five in the city. Their duty is to see thatfemale flute-and harp-and lute-players are not hired at more thantwo drachmas, and if more than one person is anxious to hire thesame girl, they cast lots and hire her out to the person to whom thelot falls. They also provide that no collector of sewage shall shootany of his sewage within ten stradia of the walls; they prevent peoplefrom blocking up the streets by building, or stretching barriersacross them, or making drain-pipes in mid-air with a discharge intothe street, or having doors which open outwards; they also removethe corpses of those who die in the streets, for which purpose theyhave a body of state slaves assigned to them.Part 51Market Commissioners (Agoranomi) are elected by lot, five forPiraeus, five for the city. Their statutory duty is to see that

allarticles offered for sale in the market are pure and unadulterated.Commissioners of Weights and Measures (Metronomi) are elected bylot, five for the city, and five for Piraeus. They see that sellersuse fair weights and measures.Formerly there were ten Corn Commissioners (Sitophylaces), electedby lot, five for Piraeus, and five for the city; but now there aretwenty for the city and fifteen for Piraeus. Their duties are,first, to see that the unprepared corn in the market is offered forsale at reasonable prices, and secondly, to see that the millerssell barley meal at a price proportionate to that of barley, andthat the bakers sell their loaves at a price proportionate to thatof wheat, and of such weight as the Commissioners may appoint; for thelaw requires them to fix the standard weight.There are ten Superintendents of the Mart, elected by lot, whoseduty is to superintend the Mart, and to compel merchants to bring upinto the city two-thirds of the corn which is brought by sea to theCorn Mart.Part 52The Eleven also are appointed by lot to take care of the prisonersin the state gaol. Thieves, kidnappers, and pickpockets are brought tothem, and if they plead guilty they are executed, but if they deny thecharge the Eleven bring the case before the law-courts; if theprisoners are acquitted, they release them, but if not, they thenexecute them. They also bring up before the law-courts the list offarms and houses claimed as state-property; and if it is decidedthat they are so, they deliver them to the Commissioners for PublicContracts. The Eleven also bring up informations laid againstmagistrates alleged to be disqualified; this function comes withintheir province, but some such cases are brought up by theThesmothetae.There are also five Introducers of Cases (Eisagogeis), elected bylot, one for each pair of tribes, who bring up the 'monthly' casesto the law-courts. 'Monthly' cases are these: refusal to pay up adowry where a party is bound to do so, refusal to pay interest onmoney borrowed at 12 per cent., or where a man desirous of settingup business in the market has borrowed from another man capital tostart with; also cases of slander, cases arising out of friendly loansor partnerships, and cases concerned with slaves, cattle, and theoffice of trierarch, or with banks. These are brought up as'monthly' cases and are introduced by these officers; but theReceivers-General perform the same function in cases for or againstthe farmers of taxes. Those in which the sum concerned is not morethan ten drachmas they can decide summarily, but all above that amountthey bring into the law-courts as 'monthly' cases.Part 53The Forty are also elected by lot, four from each tribe, before whomsuitors bring all other cases. Formerly they were thirty in number,and they went on circuit through the demes to hear causes; but afterthe oligarchy

of the Thirty they were increased to forty. They havefull powers to decide cases in which the amount at issue does notexceed ten drachmas, but anything beyond that value they hand overto the Arbitrators. The Arbitrators take up the case, and, if theycannot bring the parties to an agreement, they give a decision. Iftheir decision satisfies both parties, and they abide by it, thecase is at an end; but if either of the parties appeals to thelaw-courts, the Arbitrators enclose the evidence, the pleadings, andthe laws quoted in the case in two urns, those of the plaintiff in theone, and those of the defendant in the other. These they seal upand, having attached to them the decision of the arbitrator, writtenout on a tablet, place them in the custody of the four justiceswhose function it is to introduce cases on behalf of the tribe ofthe defendant. These officers take them and bring up the case beforethe law-court, to a jury of two hundred and one members in cases up tothe value of a thousand drachmas, or to one of four hundred and one incases above that value. No laws or pleadings or evidence may be usedexcept those which were adduced before the Arbitrator, and have beenenclosed in the urns.The Arbitrators are persons in the sixtieth year of their age;this appears from the schedule of the Archons and the Eponymi. Thereare two classes of Eponymi, the ten who give their names to thetribes, and the forty-two of the years of service. The youths, onbeing enrolled among the citizens, were formerly registered uponwhitened tablets, and the names were appended of the Archon in whoseyear they were enrolled, and of the Eponymus who had been in course inthe preceding year; at the present day they are written on a bronzepillar, which stands in front of the Council-chamber, near the Eponymiof the tribes. Then the Forty take the last of the Eponymi of theyears of service, and assign the arbitrations to the persons belongingto that year, casting lots to determine which arbitrations eachshall undertake; and every one is compelled to carry through thearbitrations which the lot assigns to him. The law enacts that any onewho does not serve as Arbitrator when he has arrived at thenecessary age shall lose his civil rights, unless he happens to beholding some other office during that year, or to be out of thecountry. These are the only persons who escape the duty. Any one whosuffers injustice at the hands of the Arbitrator may appeal to thewhole board of Arbitrators, and if they find the magistrate guilty,the law enacts that he shall lose his civil rights. The persons thuscondemned have, however, in their turn an appeal. The Eponymi are alsoused in reference to military expeditions; when the men of militaryage are despatched on service, a notice is put up stating that the menfrom such-and such an Archon and Eponymus to such-and such anotherArchon and Eponymus are to g

o on the expedition.Part 54The following magistrates also are elected by lot: FiveCommissioners of Roads (Hodopoei), who, with an assigned body ofpublic slaves, are required to keep the roads in order: and tenAuditors, with ten assistants, to whom all persons who have held anyoffice must give in their accounts. These are the only officers whoaudit the accounts of those who are subject to examination, and whobring them up for examination before the law-courts. If they detectany magistrate in embezzlement, the jury condemn him for theft, and heis obliged to repay tenfold the sum he is declared to havemisappropriated. If they charge a magistrate with accepting bribes andthe jury convict him, they fine him for corruption, and this sum toois repaid tenfold. Or if they convict him of unfair dealing, he isfined on that charge, and the sum assessed is paid without increase,if payment is made before the ninth prytany, but otherwise it isdoubled. A tenfold fine is not doubled.The Clerk of the prytany, as he is called, is also elected by lot.He has the charge of all public documents, and keeps the resolutionswhich are passed by the Assembly, and checks the transcripts of allother official papers and attends at the sessions of the Council.Formerly he was elected by open vote, and the most distinguished andtrustworthy persons were elected to the post, as is known from thefact that the name of this officer is appended on the pillarsrecording treaties of alliance and grants of consulship andcitizenship. Now, however, he is elected by lot. There is, inaddition, a Clerk of the Laws, elected by lot, who attends at thesessions of the Council; and he too checks the transcript of all thelaws. The Assembly also elects by open vote a clerk to readdocuments to it and to the Council; but he has no other duty exceptthat of reading aloud.The Assembly also elects by lot the Commissioners of PublicWorship (Hieropoei) known as the Commissioners for Sacrifices, whooffer the sacrifices appointed by oracle, and, in conjunction with theseers, take the auspices whenever there is occasion. It also elects bylot ten others, known as Annual Commissioners, who offer certainsacrifices and administer all the quadrennial festivals except thePanathenaea. There are the following quadrennial festivals: first thatof Delos (where there is also a sexennial festival), secondly theBrauronia, thirdly the Heracleia, fourthly the Eleusinia, andfifthly the Panathenaea; and no two of these are celebrated in thesame place. To these the Hephaestia has now been added, in thearchonship of Cephisophon.An Archon is also elected by lot for Salamis, and a Demarch forPiraeus. These officers celebrate the Dionysia in these two places,and appoint Choregi. In Salamis, moreover, the name of the Archon ispublicly recorded.Part 55All the foregoing magistrates are elected by lot, and their power

sare those which have been stated. To pass on to the nine Archons, asthey are called, the manner of their appointment from the earliesttimes has been described already. At the present day sixThesmothetae are elected by lot, together with their clerk, and inaddition to these an Archon, a King, and a Polemarch. One is electedfrom each tribe. They are examined first of all by the Council of FiveHundred, with the exception of the clerk. The latter is examinedonly in the lawcourt, like other magistrates (for all magistrates,whether elected by lot or by open vote, are examined before enteringon their offices); but the nine Archons are examined both in theCouncil and again in the law-court. Formerly no one could hold theoffice if the Council rejected him, but now there is an appeal tothe law-court, which is the final authority in the matter of theexamination. When they are examined, they are asked, first, 'Who isyour father, and of what deme? who is your father's father? who isyour mother? who is your mother's father, and of what deme?' Thenthe candidate is asked whether he possesses an ancestral Apollo anda household Zeus, and where their sanctuaries are; next if hepossesses a family tomb, and where; then if he treats his parentswell, and pays his taxes, and has served on the required militaryexpeditions. When the examiner has put these questions, he proceeds,'Call the witnesses to these facts'; and when the candidate hasproduced his witnesses, he next asks, 'Does any one wish to make anyaccusation against this man?' If an accuser appears, he gives theparties an opportunity of making their accusation and defence, andthen puts it to the Council to pass the candidate or not, and to thelaw-court to give the final vote. If no one wishes to make anaccusation, he proceeds at once to the vote. Formerly a singleindividual gave the vote, but now all the members are obliged tovote on the candidates, so that if any unprincipled candidate hasmanaged to get rid of his accusers, it may still be possible for himto be disqualified before the law-court. When the examination has beenthus completed, they proceed to the stone on which are the pieces ofthe victims, and on which the Arbitrators take oath before declaringtheir decisions, and witnesses swear to their testimony. On this stonethe Archons stand, and swear to execute their office uprightly andaccording to the laws, and not to receive presents in respect of theperformance of their duties, or, if they do, to dedicate a goldenstatue. When they have taken this oath they proceed to theAcropolis, and there they repeat it; after this they enter upontheir office.Part 56The Archon, the King, and the Polemarch have each two assessors,nominated by themselves. These officers are examined in the lawcourtbefore they begin to act, and give in accounts on each occasion oftheir acting.As soon as the Archon enters office, he

begins by issuing aproclamation that whatever any one possessed before he entered intooffice, that he shall possess and hold until the end of his term. Nexthe assigns Choregi to the tragic poets, choosing three of therichest persons out of the whole body of Athenians. Formerly he usedalso to assign five Choregi to the comic poets, but now the tribesprovide the Choregi for them. Then he receives the Choregi who havebeen appointed by the tribes for the men's and boys' choruses andthe comic poets at the Dionysia, and for the men's and boys'choruses at the Thargelia (at the Dionysia there is a chorus foreach tribe, but at the Thargelia one between two tribes, each tribebearing its share in providing it); he transacts the exchanges ofproperties for them, and reports any excuses that are tendered, if anyone says that he has already borne this burden, or that he is exemptbecause he has borne a similar burden and the period of hisexemption has not yet expired, or that he is not of the requiredage; since the Choregus of a boys' chorus must be over forty yearsof age. He also appoints Choregi for the festival at Delos, and achief of the mission for the thirty-oar boat which conveys theyouths thither. He also superintends sacred processions, both thatin honour of Asclepius, when the initiated keep house, and that of thegreat Dionysia-the latter in conjunction with the Superintendents ofthat festival. These officers, ten in number, were formerly elected byopen vote in the Assembly, and used to provide for the expenses of theprocession out of their private means; but now one is elected by lotfrom each tribe, and the state contributes a hundred minas for theexpenses. The Archon also superintends the procession at theThargelia, and that in honour of Zeus the Saviour. He also manages thecontests at the Dionysia and the Thargelia.These, then, are the festivals which he superintends. The suitsand indictments which come before him, and which he, after apreliminary inquiry, brings up before the lawcourts, are as follows.Injury to parents (for bringing these actions the prosecutor cannotsuffer any penalty); injury to orphans (these actions lie againsttheir guardians); injury to a ward of state (these lie against theirguardians or their husbands), injury to an orphan's estate (thesetoo lie against the guardians); mental derangement, where a partycharges another with destroying his own property through unsoundnessof mind; for appointment of liquidators, where a party refuses todivide property in which others have a share; for constituting awardship; for determining between rival claims to a wardship; forgranting inspection of property to which another party lays claim; forappointing oneself as guardian; and for determining disputes as toinheritances and wards of state. The Archon also has the care oforphans and wards of state, and of women who, on the death of their

husbands, declare themselves to be with child; and he has power toinflict a fine on those who offend against the persons under hischarge, or to bring the case before the law-courts. He also leases thehouses of orphans and wards of state until they reach the age offourteen, and takes mortgages on them; and if the guardians fail toprovide the necessary food for the children under their charge, heexacts it from them. Such are the duties of the Archon.Part 57The King in the first place superintends the mysteries, inconjunction with the Superintendents of Mysteries. The latter areelected in the Assembly by open vote, two from the general body ofAthenians, one from the Eumolpidae, and one from the Ceryces. Next, hesuperintends the Lenaean Dionysia, which consists of a processionand a contest. The procession is ordered by the King and theSuperintendents in conjunction; but the contest is managed by the Kingalone. He also manages all the contests of the torch-race; and tospeak broadly, he administers all the ancestral sacrifices.Indictments for impiety come before him, or any disputes betweenparties concerning priestly rites; and he also determines allcontroversies concerning sacred rites for the ancient families and thepriests. All actions for homicide come before him, and it is he thatmakes the proclamation requiring polluted persons to keep away fromsacred ceremonies. Actions for homicide and wounding are heard, if thehomicide or wounding be willful, in the Areopagus; so also in cases ofkilling by poison, and of arson. These are the only cases heard bythat Council. Cases of unintentional homicide, or of intent to kill,or of killing a slave or a resident alien or a foreigner, are heard bythe court of Palladium. When the homicide is acknowledged, but legaljustification is pleaded, as when a man takes an adulterer in the act,or kills another by mistake in battle, or in an athletic contest,the prisoner is tried in the court of Delphinium. If a man who is inbanishment for a homicide which admits of reconcilliation incurs afurther charge of killing or wounding, he is tried in Phreatto, and hemakes his defence from a boat moored near the shore. All thesecases, except those which are heard in the Areopagus, are tried by theEphetae on whom the lot falls. The King introduces them, and thehearing is held within sacred precincts and in the open air.Whenever the King hears a case he takes off his crown. The personwho is charged with homicide is at all other times excluded from thetemples, nor is it even lawful for him to enter the market-place;but on the occasion of his trial he enters the temple and makes hisdefence. If the actual offender is unknown, the writ runs against 'thedoer of the deed'. The King and the tribe-kings also hear the cases inwhich the guilt rests on inanimate objects and the lower animal.Part 58The Polemarch performs th

e sacrifices to Artemis the huntress and toEnyalius, and arranges the contest at the funeral of those who havefallen in war, and makes offerings to the memory of Harmodius andAristogeiton. Only private actions come before him, namely those inwhich resident aliens, both ordinary and privileged, and agents offoreign states are concerned. It is his duty to receive these casesand divide them into ten groups, and assign to each tribe the groupwhich comes to it by lot; after which the magistrates who introducecases for the tribe hand them over to the Arbitrators. ThePolemarch, however, brings up in person cases in which an alien ischarged with deserting his patron or neglecting to provide himselfwith one, and also of inheritances and wards of state where aliens areconcerned; and in fact, generally, whatever the Archon does forcitizens, the Polemarch does for aliens.Part 59The Thesmothetae in the first place have the power of prescribing onwhat days the lawcourts are to sit, and next of assigning them tothe several magistrates; for the latter must follow the arrangementwhich the Thesmothetae assign. Moreover they introduce impeachmentsbefore the Assembly, and bring up all votes for removal from office,challenges of a magistrate's conduct before the Assembly,indictments for illegal proposals, or for proposing a law which iscontrary to the interests of the state, complaints against Proedrior their president for their conduct in office, and the accountspresented by the generals. All indictments also come before them inwhich a deposit has to be made by the prosecutor, namely,indictments for concealment of foreign origin, for corrupt evasionof foreign origin (when a man escapes the disqualification bybribery), for blackmailing accusations, bribery, false entry ofanother as a state debtor, false testimony to the service of asummons, conspiracy to enter a man as a state debtor, corruptremoval from the list of debtors, and adultery. They also bring up theexaminations of all magistrates, and the rejections by the demes andthe condemnations by the Council. Moreover they bring up certainprivate suits in cases of merchandise and mines, or where a slavehas slandered a free man. It is they also who cast lots to assignthe courts to the various magistrates, whether for private or publiccases. They ratify commercial treaties, and bring up the cases whicharise out of such treaties; and they also bring up cases of perjuryfrom the Areopagus. The casting of lots for the jurors is conducted byall the nine Archons, with the clerk to the Thesmothetae as the tenth,each performing the duty for his own tribe. Such are the duties of thenine Archons.Part 60There are also ten Commissioners of Games (Athlothetae), electedby lot, one from each tribe. These officers, after passing anexamination, serve for four years; and they manage the Panathenaicprocession, the cont

est in music and that in gymnastic, and thehorse-race; they also provide the robe of Athena and, in conjunctionwith the Council, the vases, and they present the oil to the athletes.This oil is collected from the sacred olives. The Archonrequisitions it from the owners of the farms on which the sacredolives grow, at the rate of three-quarters of a pint from eachplant. Formerly the state used to sell the fruit itself, and if anyone dug up or broke down one of the sacred olives, he was tried by theCouncil of Areopagus, and if he was condemned, the penalty wasdeath. Since, however, the oil has been paid by the owner of the farm,the procedure has lapsed, though the law remains; and the oil is astate charge upon the property instead of being taken from theindividual plants. When, then, the Archon has collected the oil forhis year of office, he hands it over to the Treasurers to preservein the Acropolis, and he may not take his seat in the Areopagusuntil he has paid over to the Treasurers the full amount. TheTreasurers keep it in the Acropolis until the Panathenaea, when theymeasure it out to the Commissioners of Games, and they again to thevictorious competitors. The prizes for the victors in the musicalcontest consist of silver and gold, for the victors in manly vigour,of shields, and for the victors in the gymnastic contest and thehorse-race, of oil.Part 61All officers connected with military service are elected by openvote. In the first place, ten Generals (Strategi), who were formerlyelected one from each tribe, but now are chosen from the whole mass ofcitizens. Their duties are assigned to them by open vote; one isappointed to command the heavy infantry, and leads them if they go outto war; one to the defence of the country, who remains on thedefensive, and fights if there is war within the borders of thecountry; two to Piraeus, one of whom is assigned to Munichia, andone to the south shore, and these have charge of the defence of thePiraeus; and one to superintend the symmories, who nominates thetrierarchs arranges exchanges of properties for them, and brings upactions to decide on rival claims in connexion with them. The rest aredispatched to whatever business may be on hand at the moment. Theappointment of these officers is submitted for confirmation in eachprytany, when the question is put whether they are considered to bedoing their duty. If any officer is rejected on this vote, he is triedin the lawcourt, and if he is found guilty the people decide whatpunishment or fine shall be inflicted on him; but if he is acquittedhe resumes his office. The Generals have full power, when on activeservice, to arrest any one for insubordination, or to cashier himpublicly, or to inflict a fine; the latter is, however, unusual.There are also ten Taxiarchs, one from each tribe, elected by openvote; and each commands his own tribesmen and appoints c

aptains ofcompanies (Lochagi). There are also two Hipparchs, elected by openvote from the whole mass of the citizens, who command the cavalry,each taking five tribes. They have the same powers as the Generalshave in respect of the infantry, and their appointments are alsosubject to confirmation. There are also ten Phylarchs, elected by openvote, one from each tribe, to command the cavalry, as the Taxiarchs dothe infantry. There is also a Hipparch for Lemnos, elected by openvote, who has charge of the cavalry in Lemnos. There is also atreasurer of the Paralus, and another of the Ammonias, similarlyelected.Part 62Of the magistrates elected by lot, in former times some includingthe nine Archons, were elected out of the tribe as a whole, whileothers, namely those who are now elected in the Theseum, wereapportioned among the demes; but since the demes used to sell theelections, these magistrates too are now elected from the whole tribe,except the members of the Council and the guards of the dockyards, whoare still left to the demes.Pay is received for the following services. First the members of theAssembly receive a drachma for the ordinary meetings, and nine obolsfor the 'sovereign' meeting. Then the jurors at the law-courts receivethree obols; and the members of the Council five obols. TheyPrytanes receive an allowance of an obol for their maintenance. Thenine Archons receive four obols apiece for maintenance, and alsokeep a herald and a flute-player; and the Archon for Salamisreceives a drachma a day. The Commissioners for Games dine in thePrytaneum during the month of Hecatombaeon in which the Panathenaicfestival takes place, from the fourteenth day onwards. TheAmphictyonic deputies to Delos receive a drachma a day from theexchequer of Delos. Also all magistrates sent to Samos, Scyros,Lemnos, or Imbros receive an allowance for their maintenance. Themilitary offices may be held any number of times, but none of theothers more than once, except the membership of the Council, which maybe held twice.Part 63The juries for the law-courts are chosen by lot by the nine Archons,each for their own tribe, and by the clerk to the Thesmothetae for thetenth. There are ten entrances into the courts, one for each tribe;twenty rooms in which the lots are drawn, two for each tribe; ahundred chests, ten for each tribe; other chests, in which areplaced the tickets of the jurors on whom the lot falls; and two vases.Further, staves, equal in number to the jurors required, are placed bythe side of each entrance; and counters are put into one vase, equalin number to the staves. These are inscribed with letters of thealphabet beginning with the eleventh (lambda), equal in number tothe courts which require to be filled. All persons above thirtyyears of age are qualified to serve as jurors, provided they are notdebtors to the state and have not

lost their civil rights. If anyunqualified person serves as juror, an information is laid againsthim, and he is brought before the court; and, if he is convicted,the jurors assess the punishment or fine which they consider him todeserve. If he is condemned to a money fine, he must be imprisoneduntil he has paid up both the original debt, on account of which theinformation was laid against him, and also the fine which the court asimposed upon him. Each juror has his ticket of boxwood, on which isinscribed his name, with the name of his father and his deme, andone of the letters of the alphabet up to kappa; for the jurors intheir several tribes are divided into ten sections, with approximatelyan equal number in each letter. When the Thesmothetes has decided bylot which letters are required to attend at the courts, the servantputs up above each court the letter which has been assigned to it bythe lot.Part 64The ten chests above mentioned are placed in front of the entranceused by each tribe, and are inscribed with the letters of the alphabetfrom alpha to kappa. The jurors cast in their tickets, each into thechest on which is inscribed the letter which is on his ticket; thenthe servant shakes them all up, and the Archon draws one ticket fromeach chest. The individual so selected is called the Ticket-hanger(Empectes), and his function is to hang up the tickets out of hischest on the bar which bears the same letter as that on the chest.He is chosen by lot, lest, if the Ticket-hanger were always the sameperson, he might tamper with the results. There are five of these barsin each of the rooms assigned for the lot-drawing. Then the Archoncasts in the dice and thereby chooses the jurors from each tribe, roomby room. The dice are made of brass, coloured black or white; andaccording to the number of jurors required, so many white dice are putin, one for each five tickets, while the remainder are black, in thesame proportion. As the Archon draws out the dice, the crier calls outthe names of the individuals chosen. The Ticket-hanger is includedamong those selected. Each juror, as he is chosen and answers to hisname, draws a counter from the vase, and holding it out with theletter uppermost shows it first to the presiding Archon; and he,when he has seen it, throws the ticket of the juror into the cheston which is inscribed the letter which is on the counter, so thatthe juror must go into the court assigned to him by lot, and notinto one chosen by himself, and that it may be impossible for anyone to collect the jurors of his choice into any particular court. Forthis purpose chests are placed near the Archon, as many in number asthere are courts to be filled that day, bearing the letters of thecourts on which the lot has fallen.Part 65The juror thereupon, after showing his counter again to theattendant, passes through the barrier into the cour

t. The attendantgives him a staff of the same colour as the court bearing the letterwhich is on his counter, so as to ensure his going into the courtassigned to him by lot; since, if he were to go into any other, hewould be betrayed by the colour of his staff. Each court has a certaincolour painted on the lintel of the entrance. Accordingly the juror,bearing his staff, enters the court which has the same colour as hisstaff, and the same letter as his counter. As he enters, he receives avoucher from the official to whom this duty has been assigned bylot. So with their counters and their staves the selected jurorstake their seats in the court, having thus completed the process ofadmission. The unsuccessful candidates receive back their tickets fromthe Ticket-hangers. The public servants carry the chests from eachtribe, one to each court, containing the names of the members of thetribe who are in that court, and hand them over to the officialsassigned to the duty of giving back their tickets to the jurors ineach court, so that these officials may call them up by name and paythem their fee.Part 66When all the courts are full, two ballot boxes are placed in thefirst court, and a number of brazen dice, bearing the colours of theseveral courts, and other dice inscribed with the names of thepresiding magistrates. Then two of the Thesmothetae, selected bylot, severally throw the dice with the colours into one box, and thosewith the magistrates' names into the other. The magistrate whosename is first drawn is thereupon proclaimed by the crier as assignedfor duty in the court which is first drawn, and the second in thesecond, and similarly with the rest. The object of this procedure isthat no one may know which court he will have, but that each maytake the court assigned to him by lot.When the jurors have come in, and have been assigned to theirrespective courts, the presiding magistrate in each court draws oneticket out of each chest (making ten in all, one out of each tribe),and throws them into another empty chest. He then draws out five ofthem, and assigns one to the superintendence of the water-clock, andthe other four to the telling of the votes. This is to prevent anytampering beforehand with either the superintendent of the clock orthe tellers of the votes, and to secure that there is no malpracticein these respects. The five who have not been selected for theseduties receive from them a statement of the order in which thejurors shall receive their fees, and of the places where the severaltribes shall respectively gather in the court for this purpose whentheir duties are completed; the object being that the jurors may bebroken up into small groups for the reception of their pay, and notall crowd together and impede one another.Part 67These preliminaries being concluded, the cases are called on. Ifit is a day for private cases, the priv

ate litigants are called.Four cases are taken in each of the categories defined in the law, andthe litigants swear to confine their speeches to the point at issue.If it is a day for public causes, the public litigants are called, andonly one case is tried. Water-clocks are provided, having smallsupply-tubes, into which the water is poured by which the length ofthe pleadings is regulated. Ten gallons are allowed for a case inwhich an amount of more than five thousand drachmas is involved, andthree for the second speech on each side. When the amount is betweenone and five thousand drachmas, seven gallons are allowed for thefirst speech and two for the second; when it is less than onethousand, five and two. Six gallons are allowed for arbitrationsbetween rival claimants, in which there is no second speech. Theofficial chosen by lot to superintend the water-clock places hishand on the supply tube whenever the clerk is about to read aresolution or law or affidavit or treaty. When, however, a case isconducted according to a set measurement of the day, he does notstop the supply, but each party receives an equal allowance ofwater. The standard of measurement is the length of the days in themonth Poseideon.... The measured day is employed in cases whenimprisonment, death, exile, loss of civil rights, or confiscation ofgoods is assigned as the penalty.Part 68Most of the courts consist of 500 members...; and when it isnecessary to bring public cases before a jury of 1,000 members, twocourts combine for the purpose, the most important cases of all arebrought 1,500 jurors, or three courts. The ballot balls are made ofbrass with stems running through the centre, half of them having thestem pierced and the other half solid. When the speeches areconcluded, the officials assigned to the taking of the votes give eachjuror two ballot balls, one pierced and one solid. This is done infull view of the rival litigants, to secure that no one shallreceive two pierced or two solid balls. Then the official designatedfor the purpose takes away the jurors staves, in return for which eachone as he records his vote receives a brass voucher market with thenumeral 3 (because he gets three obols when he gives it up). This isto ensure that all shall vote; since no one can get a voucher unlesshe votes. Two urns, one of brass and the other of wood, stand in thecourt, in distinct spots so that no one may surreptitiously insertballot balls; in these the jurors record their votes. The brazen urnis for effective votes, the wooden for unused votes; and the brazenurn has a lid pierced so as to take only one ballot ball, in orderthat no one may put in two at a time.When the jurors are about to vote, the crier demands first whetherthe litigants enter a protest against any of the evidence; for noprotest can be received after the voting has begun. Then heproclaims again, 'The pierced b

allot for the plaintiff, the solidfor the defendant'; and the juror, taking his two ballot balls fromthe stand, with his hand closed over the stem so as not to show eitherthe pierced or the solid ballot to the litigants, casts the onewhich is to count into the brazen urn, and the other into the woodenurn.Part 69When all the jurors have voted, the attendants take the urncontaining the effective votes and discharge them on to a reckoningboard having as many cavities as there are ballot balls, so that theeffective votes, whether pierced or solid, may be plainly displayedand easily counted. Then the officials assigned to the taking of thevotes tell them off on the board, the solid in one place and thepierced in another, and the crier announces the numbers of thevotes, the pierced ballots being for the prosecutor and the solidfor the defendant. Whichever has the majority is victorious; but ifthe votes are equal the verdict is for the defendant. Each jurorreceives two ballots, and uses one to record his vote, and throwsthe other away.Then, if damages have to be awarded, they vote again in the sameway, first returning their pay-vouchers and receiving back theirstaves. Half a gallon of water is allowed to each party for thediscussion of the damages. Finally, when all has been completed inaccordance with the law, the jurors receive their pay in the orderassigned by the lot.THE END.