语法总复习目录
1、名词与代词
2、形容词与副词
3、从句
4、动词不定式
5、动名词
6、分词
7、前后呼应
8、反义疑问句
9、强调句
10、虚拟语气
11、倒装句
第一节 名词与代词
名词可分为专有名词和普通名词两类。而普通名词又可分为个体名词、集体名词、物质名词和抽象名词。其中，个体名词和集体名词为可数名词，而物质名词和抽象名词为不可数名词。名词的复数构成通常是在其后加—s；但以-s，-x，-ch，-sh和大部分以o结尾的名词后加-es；以“辅音字母+y”结尾的名词把“y”变成 “i”，再加-es。有些名词的复数构成是不规则的，有其特殊形式。有些名词在不同的情况下，属不同的名词词类，因此有时为可数，有时则为不可数： 名词的格可分为主格(作主语)，宾格(作宾语)和所有格(表示所有关系)。代词可分为人称代词，物主代词，反身代词，相互代词，不定代词，指示代词，关系代词，连接代词和疑问代词等九类。
1. 名词的用法
可数名词除非前面有冠词或表示单数的限定词，否则要用其复数形式，例如：
If a person disobeys the order，he will be punished severely． The teacher firstly divided his students into four groups．
The reference book can be used to answer questions，to solve problems or to obtain information on a particular topic．
These courses are especially designed for senior students．
有些名词的复数构成是不规则的，如：child-children，foot-feet。goose-geese, mouse-mice, man-men, ox-oxen, tooth-teeth，woman-women
等。例如：
Every fall geese f1y over the house．
The dentist told him that several teeth of his need to be filled． Mrs. Smith has three children，and Tonny is the youngest one． I think we've got mice in the kitchen．
有些名词的单复数形式是一样的，如：Chinese，Japanese，Burmese(缅甸)，Spanish (西班牙)，Lebanese (黎巴嫩)，Portuguese (葡萄牙)，Swiss(瑞士)．sheep，deer，swine (猪)，fish，carp(鲤鱼)，salmon (鲑)，means，series，species，aircraft，spacecraft等。例如：
The best fish are near the bottom．
When they got to the New World，Spanish constructed their houses with Moorish architectural features．
I saw a white sheep running down the road．
Judging by his language，he must be a Japanese．
在表示一类事物时，介词of后的名词要用复数形式。例如： Beethoven is of the greatest musicians in the world．
The Animal Art Festival is being held at Shanghai zoo, which is one of the most welcome festivals in the city.
As one of the countries that bear responsibility for the incident, German Chancellor Schroeder holds that the organization should apologize to Chinese government unconditionally.
She is one of the three martyrs who were killed in NATO's bombing on the
Chinese Embassy in Yugoslavia.
大多数集体名词可作单数，也可作复数，如：army，audience，class，committee，crew(全体船员，乘务员)，crowd，faculty，family, government group orchestra，public，team，union等。但有些虽然是单数形式，却用作复数，如：cattle（牡畜）mankind(人类)，militia(民兵)，people，police，poultry(家畜)，staff(全体职员)等。例如：
The president said the Chinese Gowrnment is paying close attention to developments in this matter, and continues to reserve the right to take future action.
The cattle, were grazing on the meadow near the farm.
The audience were amused by his humorous stories.
My family is far away from the school.
有些名词只有复数形式，而且也只用作复数，如：clothes，glasses，spectacles，pants，arms(武器)，belongings(所有物)，customs(海关)，goods(货物)，suburbs(郊区)，papers(文件)等；而有些名词形式为复数，却用作单数，如：electronics(电子学)，mathematics(数学)，optics(光学)，politics，statistics(统计学)等。例如：
The shorts he wears are made of leather.
Linguistics is a difficult subject to study.
He used to study electronics which isn’t his favorite suject．
I love to live in the suburbs that are conclusive．
有些名词一般情况下以单数形式出现，表示总体。但如果表示若干、
多次或几种时，则要用其复数。这类词有：hair，fruit，pollution，rain，difficulty，success，wind，failure，favour等。例如：
The barber had been cutting human hair for two years before he came to Los Angeles．
Mother bought oranges，bananas and other fruits.
These caves collapse easily in heavyrains, and great winds．
He’s having financial difficulties．
有些名词一般只有单数形式，它们通常是表示物质和抽象概念的不可数名词，像：advice，baggage，bread，corn，clothing，equipment，education，fun，furniture，food，fruit，garbage，grass，happiness，homework，housework，humanity，information，knowledge，landscape，1aughter，machinery，mankind，merchandise，money，music，nonsense，nature， population，progress，scenery，smoke，sweat，strength，traffic，thunder，ink，jewellery，damage，mail，work，soap，sugar，gold，chalk，cloth，anger，applause，cake，chocolate，poverty等。例如：
I must seek the advice of a specialist in the matter of the transfer of property rights．
Headache is the most common disease of human.
I really get a lot of fun from reading in leisure time.
The population of Shanghai is very big.
有些名词单复数的含义不同，使用时要根据上下文的意思进行选择。这类词包括：communication(通讯)—communications(通讯系统，通讯
工具)，cloth(布)--clothes(衣服)，content(内容)--contents(目录)，convenience(便利)--conveniences(便利设备), humanity(人类)--humanities(人文科学)，necessity(需要)-necessities(必需品)，wood(木材)-woods(树林)，pain(疼痛)—pains(辛劳)，ruin(毁灭)-ruins(废墟，遗迹)，sand(沙子)--sands(沙滩)，work(工作)--works(工厂，著作)等。例如：
“Hometown” is one of Lu Xun’s most famous works．
The insurance company paid $98，700 in damages for the accident． My child enjoys playing on the sands．
No pains，no gains．
有些名词只有复数形式。如：fundamentals(基本原则), goods(货物), means(方法) ,shorts(短裤)， sweets(欢乐), valuables(贵重物品)等。 The fundamentals are made to guarantee the social stability
Don’t take any valuables there for the sake of safety.
The goods were purchased from him aren’t expensive.
I think our problem can be solved by means of negotiation.
名词做定语时，不能用作复数。例如：
Please check your examination paper carefully after finishing。
The China's Central Television Station supplies weather report everyday， You'd better inform my family members before leaving for Beijing． The United States and Germany are two member states of NATO.
复合名词的复数只把其中所包含的主体名词变成复数。如：
looker(s)--on，runner(s)-up，son(s)-in-law，editor(s)-in-chief，passer(s)-by，grand-child(ren)，armyman(armymen)，room-number(s)，shoe lace(s)，dinner plate(s)，blood type(s)等。如果没有主体名词，就在最后一个词上加复数词尾。如：go-between(s)，drawback(s)等。注意以man，woman构成的复合名词，全部变成复数。如：man-servant—men-servants, woman-soldier—women-soldiers。例如：
Would you bring me some dinner plates?
We had a wonderful talk with some women-soldiers．
Don’t regard yourselves as passers-by under such circumstances． We are of different blood types．
名词的所有格一般在词尾加 ’s，已有复数词尾-s的，只加’。例如： We must work hard to fulfil the country’s plans．
The school is within a stone’s throw．
Nearby are her relatives’ houses．
Could you tell me the Smiths’s addres?
名词所有格有时还可以和of构成短语，有以下两种情况：
1)它所修饰的词前面有一个表示数量的词，如：a，two，several，some，any，no，few等。
2)它所修饰的词前面有+个指示代词，使句子表示某种情绪。例如： Several students of Lao Yang’s acted in the play．
We saw a play Guo Moro's.
At birth，the head of a baby is extremely large in relation to the rest of the
body。
I have some records of NaYing's.
2．代词的用法
1)人称代词有主格人称代词，在句中充当主语：I，you，he，she，it, we，you，they和宾格人称代词，在句中充当宾语：me，you，him，her，it, us，you；them。例如：
We haven't seen each other for a long time since he went abroad． Let you and me have an appointment for the next weekend.
Have you got any idea about this issue?
Tell us whatever you've heard.
2)物主代词可在句中作定语，有指人的：my，our，your，his，her和their；有指物的:it，his或her(指国家或轮船)。名词性物主代词作表语、主语、宾语，与of连用可作定语：yours，ours，theirs，mine，her，his，its。例如：
Tonny is an old friend of mine．
My dormitory is next to yours，and Mary's is on the third floor． Titanic sank with her several thousand passengers．
Next time it's on my treat．
3)反身代词亦称自身代词，可作宾语、表语，作主语或宾语的同位语，还与某些动词连用，与介词连用构成成语。有：myself，yourself，himself，herself，itself，ourselves，yourselves，themselves。例如： These children are too young to take care of themselves．
Don't worry，he will be himself again soon．
Although Uncle George is a bad-tempered man，I think he is a kind man in himself．
You should be responsible for yourself．
4)相互代词表示相互关系，有：each other(两者之间)和one another(多者之间)。例如：
I met Miss Scott this morning，and we greeted each other．
We should learn from one another and make progress together，
5)指示代词在句中充当主语、宾语和定语，有：this，that，these，those。Such也是指示代词，可作定语、主语和表语，修饰可数名词时要与a连用。例如：
Nowadays TV programs are much more colorful than those Of the past． The money spent on entertainment，according to some authorities，has exceeded that spent on public health．
I want to know this：are you talking about the accident I encountered yesterday?
His future is closely bound with that of the company。
You shouldn't trust on such a person who never keeps his promise．
6)疑问代词有who，whom，whose，what which。who可作主语和表语；whom作宾语，whose，what，which可作主语、表语、宾语和定语，其中作主语时，要看所代表的人或物是单数还是复数，如果不清楚，则动词一般用单数。
Who will see to this matter?
Whom have you chosen to be responsible for the work?
It is hard to decide whose is better.
What’s on your schedule?
Which university did he enter at last?
7)关系代词有who，whom，whose，that，which。which代表事物，that代表人或物；在非限制性定语从句中，不能用that，而用who(m)代表人，用which代表物，或代表主句所说的全部内容。在带有a11，something，nothing，anything，much等的句子中不能用which，而用that。例如：
Our football team was defeated again，which shows our players need much more effort．
The factory now has over 1,000 workers，half of whom are women． He promised to tell us all that he knew．
Whose turn to make presentation is bcyond me.
8)连接代词有：what，who，whonl，whose，which，用来连接主语从句、宾语从句和表浯从句。Whoever，whomever，whichever，whatever为复合代词。例如：
I didn't know what to do at that very moment．
The government sell public houses to whoever provides enough amount Of money．
Whomever I worry about is none of your business．
Take whichever you like，please．
第二节形容词与副词
形容词和副词在语法结构上都有比较级和最高级，它们的构成方法基本上一样，都与音节多少有关，有些形容词和副词有特殊的比较级和最高级形式。二者基本分为同级比较、比较级和最高级三种形式。
1．形容词与副词的用法
形容词中有词形相近的，也有词义相近的，应注意区别。如：
1)behind(在后的)---hind(后部的)，considerate(周到的，体贴的)---considerable(应考虑的)，eminent(闻名的)--imminent(紧迫的)，gracious(亲切的)---graceful(优雅的)，like(有生命的)---alive(活的)，industrious(勤劳的)--industrial(工业的)，like(同样的)---alike(同样的，仅作表语)，opposite(相对的)---opposing(反对的)，perspective(透视的)---respective(各自的)，sensitive(伤感的)---sensible(明显的)，etc，。例如：
We did enjoy your staying in Beijing，and Mrs. Yan is really considerate． Professor Li has many world-famous inventions，and he is respectable to us．
As any one knows that we use our front teeth for biting and our hind teeth for chewing．
It’s a considerable success for him．
2)elemental(初步的)--fundamental(基本的)，eligible(合格的)--capable(能干的)，flexible(灵活的)--changeable(可改变的)，initial(最初
的)--preliminary(初步的，预备的)，slack(松弛的)--lazy(懒惰的)，valueless(无价值的)--priceless(无价的)，vivid(生动的)一living(活的)，etc．。例如：
Henry’s speech was so vivid that his audience applauded againand again， It is easier to adapt to new situations if one has a flexible attitude． We have finished the preliminary exam．
Your suggestion is priceless，and 1 will consider carefully．
3)有些词尾为-ly的并非副词，而是形容词，如：lovdy，likdy，deadly，earthly(现世的)，leisurdy(空闲的)，weekly，yearly，manly(丈夫气概的)，brotherly，friendly等。例如：
What a lovely girl Jenny is．She is always ready to help others． China Daily is of course a daily newspaper but not a weekly one． He is a very friendly young man．
As he didn't have anyexperience，he was likely to have problems．
以下情况形容词常用于后置：1)形容词短语，即形容词+副词，介词短语或不定式。2) 一些表语性形容词要后置，如：present，available，involved，concerned，etc, 。3)形容词修饰不定代词something，anything，everything时要后置。例如：
There was something nice about my feeling that she knew a11．
For this reason，as well as the additional cost involved，flow force compensation is generally not desirable．
I came across another question hard to answer then．
I wondered if there was a room available．
副词的位置为：修饰哪个词就放在哪个词前面；放在系动词和助动词之后，行为动词和分词之前。例如：
I had only five-dollar bill with me when l boarded the townward train． The old law were instituted to protect the long neglected rights of children. I can hardly believe that he is the murderer．
Although he has advantages，it is still too early to say that he is sure to win．
2．比较级与最高级的基本形式和用法
形容词的比较级和最高级的构成为：单音节词一般在词尾加-er和-est。如果以-e结尾，仅加-r和-st；如末尾仅有一个辅音字母，须双写词尾冉加-er和-est；如果以y结尾的，把y变i，加-er，-est；多音节单词和双音节词(其中包括由分词和分词演变而来的形容词，如：known， worn，wounded，shocking，striking，interesting，ect, 则在其前加more和most；有些形容词的比较级和最高级是不规则的，如：good(well)-better-best，bad(ill)-worse-worst，many(much)-more-most，little-less-least，far-farther(further)-farthest(furthest)。有些形容词没 有比较级形式，如：absolute，chief，entire，eternal，excellent，fatal，final，foremost，inevitable，infinite，main，naked，perfect，possible，primary，right，sufficient，supreme，universal，utter，vital，whole，wooden，etc，例如：
Mary is the best student in the class．
Further negotiation will be conducted next month．
The food we have is sufficient.
Needless to say，he is stronger than his opponent．
一般副词的比较级和最高级与形容词一样，单音节的以在词尾加-er和-est构成，多音节的以加more和most的方法构成；有些比较特殊，如：well—better-best，badly-worse-worst，much-more-most，little-less-least。以-ly结尾的副词，在其前面加more，most, 例如： Tonny runs most quickly than any other students in the class．
Which do you like best，Thorn Birds，Gone With the Wind Or Great Expectation?
I prefer less sugar in the milk．
She gets more income every month than her husband．
形容词和副词的原级比较由"as+形容词或副词(或后跟名词或短语)+as"构成，“as?as’’前可加not，just，almost，nearly，quite，twice，several times等词修饰。否定式中not后面的as可改为so。例如： Running for fifteen minutes will burn as many calories as walking for thirty minutes．
Henan province is several times as large as Shanghai．
Jimmy has as nervous a ways peaking as his father．
Getting rid of a bad habit isn't so simple as taking it up．
形容词和副词的比较级形式为：“形容词(副词)比较级+than+?”，应注意than前后相比较的人或物要一致。比较级前可以跟even，much，
still等副词修饰比较级，表示强调。例如：
Mother worried much more about my younger brother than she did about me．
Sound travels faster through water than throughI air．
The economic development in South China is faster than that in North China．
My books are much more than Li Ping's．
形容词和副词的最高级的形式分别为：“the+形容词最高级十名词+范围表达”和“副词最高级+名词+范围表达”，副词的比较级和最高级不需要加the。例如：
Our foreign exchange reserve didn't decline despite the worst flood in sixty years．
I finisbed the work more successfully than he had expected．
应注意以下表达式的含义：the same?as(和??一样)，no less than(不少于)，not less than(只有)，had better(最好)，less than(不到)，more or less(或多或少)，other than(除了)，rather than(而不是)，the more?the more/less(越??就越??)例如：
I am sure that the amount of money used in repaying a loan would have the same value as the amount of money borrowed．
You had better finisll your homework today for the teacher will collect it tomorrow．
We have received ten dozen of personal computers which are less than the
amount we ordered．
The visltors to the exhibition were not less than three hundred，which disappointed them very much．
第三节 从句
从句分为定语从句，状语从句和名词从句三大类。定语从句又分为限定性和非限定性从句两种，由关系代词或关系副词引导，修饰主句的某个成分。状语从句分为时间、结果、让步、原因、条件及行为方式状语从句。名词从句包括主语、宾语、表语和同位语从句及there be句型。
1．定语从句
限定性定语从句中that可代表人和事，而which只代表事；二者在从句中作主语或宾语。that作宾语时常可省略，which则不能，而且其后的“不及物动词+介词’’中的介词不能省略。which作宾语时，先行词与which之间的介词不能省。例如：
The first doll that could say“mama”was invented in 1830．
The second half of his voyage was by far the more dangerous part，during which he sailed round the Cape Horn．
代表a11，anything，something，nothing，much等词时，用that而不用which，that作宾语可省略。例如：
I care anything that has something to do with it．
You'd better do something he prefers to do to please him．
That is the last time we met each other．
I came across the woman you told me about yesterday．
who和whom引导的从句用来修饰人，分别作从句的主语和宾语。where是关系副词，用于表示地点的定语从句，而when用来表示时间。whose是关系代词，修饰名词作定语。例如:
Henry Ford is the person who is most responsible for developing the idea of mass production．
The knee is the joint where the thigh bone meets the large bone of the lower leg．
The next morning, when she came down to breakfast , Mary was beaming with the pleasure of a new，great discovery．
The visiting professor is a famous scientist whose son studies in my department．
在下列情况，限定性定语从句的关系代词可以省略：1)当关系代词在从句中作宾语或表语；或它们在从句中作介词的宾语，而该介词又在句末时；2)当先行词是that，all，only，everything，something，nothing等代词时，或先行词前有一个最高级形容词修饰时；3) 当先行词前有only，any，all，first，no，last等修饰时，或先行词就是time，moment，way(anyway)，direction，distance等名词时，关系代词即可省略。例如：
The delegation we had been waiting for finally arrived．
I met the woman you told me about．
She gave me all she could afford．
With TV we can see things happen almost at the exact moment they are happening．
非限定性定语从句，其作用为：对所修饰的成分作进一步的说明，它与主句用逗号隔开。此类从句省略后其余部分仍可成立。在非限定性定语从句中，which可代表前面的整个句子；代表人时只能用who，whom，而不能用that；as也可用作关系代词。例如:
The telephone，as we know，was the invention of Alexander Graham Bell． The Little White House in Warm Springs was the Georgia home President Franklin D．Roosevelt，who died there on April 12，1945．
Living in a damp house for a long time is harmful to one’s health，which is known to everyone．
2．状语从句
状语从句可分为：时间状语从句(主要由when，whenever，after，before，a5，slnce，once，assoonas，Until，while等连词引导)，结果状语从句(由so?that和such?that连接)，让步状语从句(由though，although, no matter，even if, however，whatever等词引导)，原因状语从句(由as，because，since和for引导)，条件状语从句(由if, whether，as long as， provided that等词引导)，地点状语从句(由where引导)，行为方式状语从句(由as引导)。有时条件状语从句中，主句不可以用将来时，而用一般时代替。例如：
The small greenish flowers of the elm tree appear in the Spring, long
before the leaves grow.
QiongYao's novels used to be so popular that her books appeared on best-seller lists.
Gas balloon is less safe than hot balloon because it may catch fire.
Uniform acceleration (同样的加速) occurs if the rate of change remains the same over successive equal intervals of time．
Thousands of Chinese college students went to the US Consulate Shanghai，where they protested NATO's bombing at China's Embassy in Yugoslavia.
状语从句中的 “主语+be”可以省略，前提是：从句主语和主句主语一致，且从句谓语“be”省略后的结构为“连词+现在分词／过去分词介词短语／形容词／名词短语”。) 例如：
When well fitted, glasses can correct most sight defects in healthy eyes． If necessary，I would like to see you in your office.
Although seriously wounded，he never complained．
3．名词从句
名词从句包括主语从句、宾语从句，其中有介词与形容词的宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。
1) 主语从句
主语从句常出现在it is+名词、形容词、分词+主语从句”的形式中。例如：
It is reported that Taiwanese pop singer Meng Tingwei will hold a solo
concert in Shanghai someday this month．
It must be pointed out that you have failed to meet the deadline． It usually happened that I was late because of traffic jams.
主语从句还可用when，where，how，why，whether等连接副词，和who，whom，whose，what，which，whoever，whatever，whichever等连接代词来引起。例如：
How to arrange the meeting is not your task．
Whose candidate will win the election is the question both political parties are asking．
When I leave is my own decision.
Whoever will go to the party won't change my mind of staying at home．
2)宾语从句
宾语从句可由that, 疑问代词或副词how，why和where等引出。例如：To postpone the conference until next month indicated that they were unprepared．
Nearly a11 the staff agreed with what I said．
Everyone worried about her because no one was aware of where she had gone．
Could you offer more details except that it happened at night?
由what，whether，how引导的宾语从句可用在介词后，而由that引导的从句只跟but，besides，except，in, save之后。例如:
I can hardly believe in what they have done.
He doesn’t know my phone number except that the city code is 021.
一些表语性的形容词，如：alarmed，amazed，annoyed，astonished, certain，confident, disappointed, glad, pleased, proud, sad, shocked, sure, surprised, worried, ect.做表语时，后面可跟由that, how等引导的宾语从句。例如：
I was amazed how he could pass the exam without attending the lectures． He is confident that he will pass the Band 6 examination．
She was surprised how simple his problem is．
We are all pleased that he will be able to pass the final examination.
3)表语从句
表语从句对主语的内容起解释和阐述的作用；若表语从句用that引起，that起连接作用，不能省略。b表语从句也可用连接词how，when，where，why，what引起。由because引起的表语从句通常只用在“this／that／it is because” 结构中。例如：
A logarithm(对数) is what is known in algebra exponent(代数的指数)． One thing I admire most about them is that they are hospitable． She works too hard；That is why she is exhausted．
I must point out that where you intend to build a super-market is where the elderly do exercise every day．
4)同位语从句
同位语从句是由两个或两个以上同一层次语言单位组成的结构，其中前项与后项所指相同，句法功能相同。同位语从句由that引导，也可
由whether，how，why，where, when等来引导。例如：
She ignored the teacher's instruction that she must study hard．
The question whether or not I should help him in such a case troubled me greatly．
第四节 动词不定式
1．不定式的基本形式与结构
动词不定式指通常由to加上动词原形 (如to write) 所构成的一种非限定性动词形式，但在有些情况下to可以省略。动词不定式有进行体和完成体(如上to be writing，to have written)，也有被动态(如to be written)，所有的主动词，不论是及物动词还是不及物动词，也不论是动作动词还是状态动词，都有不定式形式。助动词除be和have外, 没有不定式形式。动词不定式在语法功能上可作主语、宾语、表语、定语和状语。
2．不定式的用法
1)不定式结构作主语
Te get contact with his family in Taiwan made him extremely happy since they separated more than 40 years ago．
To finish that task in such a short time is really a challenge．
在上述情况下，如果不定式较长，显得头重脚轻，则可由代词让作形式主语(形式主语it不可由that或this等其他代词代替)，而将不定式放到后面。如：
It made him extremely happy to get contact with his family in Taiwan
since they separated more than 40 years ago．
John admitted that it is always difficult for him to be on time．
不定式结构所表示的动作是谁做的，即不定式的逻辑主语，通常可以通过for sb. to do sth. 结构表达：
It is quite important for us to read good books during a general review． It is not difficult fot those talented students to pass the exam.
在某些形容词(如careless，clever，considerate，foolish，good，impolite，kind, naughty，nice，silly，stupid等)作表语时，不定式后可以加of来引导出其逻辑主语：
It is very kind of you to tell me the truth．
It is stupid of him to do such a silly thing．
2)不定式作宾语
不定式作宾语有两种：一种是及物动词后直接跟带to的不定式, 另一种是“及物动词+疑问词+带to的不定式。
及物动词+带to的不定式结构:
只能跟动词不定式的动词，常见的有: afford, agree, aim, appear, ask, believe, care，claim，decide demand, desire, determine, expect, fail, happen, hesitate, hope, intend, learn, long, manage, offer, pretend, promise, prepare, refuse, seek, swear, undertake，want, wish等。
He managed to solve the complicated problem.
The stranger offered to show me the way.
Mr. Smith undertook to build a new plant in South Africa.
动词+疑问代(副)词+不定式：
这类动词常见的有advise, decide, find out, forget, inquire, know, learn, see, regard, remember, teach, tell, understand, wonder等。常见的疑问代(副)词有: what, when, where, which, how, whether等。
He does not know when to start.
You can decide whether to continue or to stop.
I will show you how to deal with it.
有时，不定式可由it代替，而把不定式放到后面去。这可以用这一结构表达：动词(如find, think，consider，feel等)+it+ 形容词+不定式。 She considers it necessary to make friends with him.
We find it difficult to finish all the homework before 9 o’clock.
3)不定式做表语
一种情况为主语是不定式(表示条件)；表语也是不定式(表示结果)： To see is to believe.
To work means to earn a living．
另一种情况为主语是以aim，duty，hope, idea，job, plan，problem, purpose，thing，wish等名词为中心的短语，或以what引导的名词性从句，不定式表语对主语起补充说明作用：
His aim is to study abroad in the near future．
The most important thing is to negotiate with them about the price． What I want to say is to forget all the unhappy experience．
4)不定式作定语
不定式结构作名词词组修饰语主要有三种类型：
第一种，被修饰的名词词组是不定式的逻辑宾语。例如：
There was really nothing to fear．
He gave me an interesting book to read．
如果不定式是不及物动词，后面就得加相应的介词。例如： Mary needs a friend to play with．
That girl has nothing to worry about．
They have a strict teacher to listen to．
Although the film had been on for ten minutes, I still was not able to find a chair to sit on．
第二种，被修饰的名词词组是不定式的逻辑主语；例如：
Have you got a key to unlock the door?
The action to be taken is correct．
There is nothing to be gained by pretending．
第三种，被修饰的名词词组是不定式的同位结构。这类名词通常是表示企图、努力、倾向、目的、愿望、is算、能力、意向等意义的名词：ability, attempt, effort, impulse, inclination,wish等。例如：
Her daughter will make an even bigger effort to please her．
I have no wishto quarrel withyou．
Neither of them had any inclination to do business with Mary.
5)不定式作状语
不定式结构在句中作状语通常都能转换为限制性状语从句。例如作原
因状语：
They are quite surprised to see the great changes taking place in the area． They are quite surprised because they see the great changes taking place in the area．
He was lucky to arrive before dark．
He was lucky because he arrived before dark．
作目的状语：
She raised her voice to be heared better．
She raised her voice so that she could heard better．
We went via Heidelberg to miss the traffic jam．
We went via Heidelberg so that we could miss the traffic jam． 作结果状语：
The French football team played so successfully as to defeat the Brazilians．
The French football team played so successfully that they even defeated the Brazilians．
He got to the station only to be told the train had gone．
He got to the station and was told that the train had gone．
3. 不带to的不定式的使用
动词不定式通常带to，但在有些搭配中不带to，在另一些搭配中可带to可不带to。归纳起来，以下情况下使用不带to不定式：
1) 在can／could, /may／might，will／would，shall／should，must, need，
dare等情态动词之后，动词不定式不带to。
2)在表示感觉意义的动词，如see，feel，watch，notice，smell，hear，observe等后，或是表示“致使”意义的动词，如have，let，make等后，动词不定式不带to。例如：
I often heard him say that he would study hard．
I must have him see his own mistakes．
但是，当这类结构转换为被动语态时，后面的不带to不定式一般转换为带to不定式。
例如：
He was often heard to say that he would study hard．
After he had finished speaking，he was made to answer innumerable questions．
3)在动词help之后可用不带to的不定式，也可用带to的不定式。例如：
Help the old lady (to) carry the heavy box.
4) 在had better，would rather，may／might as well，rather than，can not but等搭配之后，动词不定式也不带to。例如：
Unless you feel to ill to go out，I would rather not stay at home tonight． She could not but criticize his foolish behaviour.
5) 在make do，make believe，let drop，1et fall，1et fly，let slip，let drive，let go off，hear say，hear tell，leave go of等固定搭配中，用不带to的动词不定式。例如：
They let go of the rope．他们松开了绳子。
John let fly a torrent of abuse at me．约翰朝我痛骂了一顿。 I've heard tell of him．我听说过他。
Some of the faculty were let go for lack of the students．由于生源不足,一些教职员工被解雇了。
6)在介词but，except之后，如果其前有动词do的某种形式，其后不定式一般不带to，反之则必须带to，表示“不得不，只能”。例如： He will do anything except work on the farm．
There was nothing left for the enemy to do but surrender．
The spy was both hungry and cold；there was nothing left for him but to give in．
I had no choice but to wait till it stopped raining．
下面一些短语是固定搭配，不带to：
can not help but，can not choose but，can not but，do nothing but，have nothing to do but。例如：
I can not but admire his courage.
如果上述句中有do，to省略：
I did nothing but watch TV last night．
如果是下面一个固定搭配，就带to：
I have no choice but to give up my idea.
7)紧跟在why或why not之后的动词不定式总是不带to。但是，紧跟在who，what，which，whether等连接词后的不定式带to。例如：
Why stand up if you can sit down?
Why not ask your teacher when you don't understand the meaning? You needn't decide yet whether to study arts or science．
4．不定式的完成式和进行式
1)构成
完成式：to+ have done
进行式：to+ be doing
2)用法
完成式：如果不定式所表示的动作(状态)发生在主要谓语动作之前，那么不定式就要用其完成式。
进行式：如果主要谓语动作(情况)发生时，不定式所表示的动作正在发生，那么不定式就要用其进行式。例如：
She feels relaxed to have finished writing her thesis before the deadline． The Vikings are believed to have discovered America．
When you called me last night, I happened to be working on the computer．
5．不定式的被动形式
当不定式的逻辑主语是动作的承受者时，不定式要用被动形式，包括它的一般式和完成式。例如：
For twelve years, Spanish censorship did not allow Lorca's name to be mentioned and his work to be published．
The snow was supposed to have been blown off the mountain．
6．不定式的否定形式
否定形式是在不定式的标志to前加not。例如：
I decided not to ask him again．
Please remember not to leave the lights on when you are out．
第五节 动名词
1．动名词的形式:
动名词是由动词原形+ing构成(如writing)，有完成时态和被动语态(如having written，being written)。
2．动名词的用法
动名词通常在句中作主语和宾语。
1)动名词作主语
Going to the college is the little boy's dream．
Keeping studying hard will make you pass the exam．
2)动名词作宾语
有些动词后面只能带动名词作宾语，不能带不定式作宾语。此类动词常见的有：admit，acknowledge，anticipate，appreciate，avoid，consider，contemplate，defer，delay，deny，detest，dislike，ensure，enjoy，escape，excuse，evade，facilitate，fancy，favour，finish，forbid，imagine，include，keep，mind, miss，postpone，practise，resent，resist，risk，suggest，quit，worth等。例如：
John was considering buying a new car.
I hope you didn’t contemplate coming with us on this trip．
The witness denied having seen the accused man．
I would appreciate your keeping it a secret．
3)某些短语后面只能接动名词，不能接不定式。
此类短语常见的有：be (get) used to, be accustomed to, be dedicated to, be devoted to，be busy，be committed to，be suject to，cannot help， cannot resist，cannot stand，confess to，feel like，give up，have trouble(in), have difficulty(in)，have a good／hard time(in)，have fun(in)，have an objection to，it is no good／use，keep on，insist on，look forward to，object to，pay attention to，put off，resort to，succeed in等。例如：
I cannot stand getting up early in the morning．
I have no difficulty(in) reaching the top of the mountain.
There is no use staying on．
I cannot resist (his) bargaining．
Although punctual himself，the professor was quite used to students’being late for his lecture.
4)动词或短语后面也可以接动名词的被动形式。用主动形式还是被动形式，要根据句子的意思而定。例如:
Carlos just missed being caught．
That person wore dark glasses to avoid being recognized．
I object to being treated like a child．
3．另一类动词后面可以带动名词做宾语，也可以带不定式作宾语。这
类动词又可以分为两种：
1)带动名词作宾语与带不定式作宾语而意义无多大区别的动词
a)在begin，cannot bear，cease，continue，dread，like，love，neglect，omit，prefer，propose等动词之后，如表一般的行为，用动名词作宾语为多；如表示特定的或具体的动作，则用不定式结构作宾语为多。例如：
I don’t like swimming.
I don’t like to swim this afternoon．
John prefers doing it his way.
John prefers to go outing tomorrow.
b)在begin, start等动词之后，如表示有意的动作，用动名词结构为多；如表示无意的动作，用不定式结构为多。例如：
After some hesitation，he began speaking out his own opinion． It has already begun to rain．
c)在attempt，intend，plan等动词之后，用不定式结构与用动名词结构意义相同，但以用不定式较为常见。例如：
He intended to buy a new car．
He intended travelling abroad next summer.
d)在encourage，permit，allow，recommend，advise，authorise等动词之后，一般用动名词作宾语，或者用不定式作宾语补足语。即： encourage／permit／allow／recommend／advise／authorise+doing，或encourage／permit／allow／recommend／advise／
authorise+somebody+to do。例如：
He advised going out for a walk．
He advised us to go out for a walk．
e)在agree，decide等动词之后，可以直接跟不定式结构，但如果跟动名词，则动词后必须加适当的介词。例如：
He agreed to do me a favor．= He agreed on doing me a favor． In the end the manager decided to double the advertising budget．= In the end the manager decided on doubling the advertising budget．
f)在need，want，require, deserve等动词之后，可以用动名词的主动形式表示被动意义，这相当于用不定式的被动形式。例如： The house needs repairing. = The house needs to be repaired.
The disabled deserve respecting. = The disabled deserve to be respected．
2)带动名词作宾语与带不定式作宾语而意义不同的动词
a)动词remember，forget后可以跟不定式或动名词，但意义有明显区别：跟动名词，其动作发生在“记得”或“忘记”的动作之前；跟不定式，其动作发生在“记得”或“忘记”的动作之后。试比较： I remember posting this letter．我记得这封信已经寄出了。
I remember to post this letter in the afternoon. 我记得下午要将这封信寄走。
b)动词regret后可以跟不定式或动名词，但意义有明显区别： regret doing：为做过的事感到抱歉
regret to do：为即将要做的事感到抱歉
试比较：I regret to say that I can not go with you after school． I regret having criticized you seriously in class．
c)动词try，mean，can not help，used to后跟不定式还是动名词，取决于这些动词本身的含义。例如：
You should try to answer the questions by yourself．(try to do：设法或努力去做)
We try using this new method．(try doing：试着做某事)
I meant to go to the exhibition but I forgot． (mean to do：is算做某事) Success means working very，very hard．(mean doing：意味着做某事) I can't help apologizing． (can not help doing：忍不住做某事)
I can't help to apologize for him. (can not help to do：不能帮助做某事) Mr．Smith used to jog in the morning，but now he has stopped．(used to do：过去经常或总是干某事)
Inland canals are used to ship farm and factory goods to nearby towns．(be used to do：被用来干某事)
I am not used to getting up early in the morning．(be／get used to doing： 习惯于干某事)
d) 动词stop，continue，go on，leaveoff之后，通常用动名词结构作宾语；如果用不定式结构，则不是宾语而是目的状语，相当于in order to。试比较：
They stopped working．他们停止工作(来做其他事)。
They stopped to work。他们停止(做其他事)来工作。
The students went on reciting the text．学生们继续背诵课文。
The students went on to recite the text．学生们停下其他事，继续背诵课文。
She let off doing the housework．她停止做家务(去干其他事)。 She let off to do the housework．她停止(干其他事)来做家务。
4. 动名词的逻辑主语问题
动名词，顾名思义，具有名词的特点，即可以加物主代词和名词的属格来表示其逻辑 (这时动名词的逻辑主语与句子主语不一致)。如果动名词的逻辑主语就是句子主语，不用加物主代词或名词的属格。例如： The watchman reported finding the door open．=
The watchman reported that he had found the door open．
此处，finding的主语与主句主语一致，都是the watchman，所以finding前不加物主代词。
I appreciated very much your helping me through the tough period.
此处，helping的主语是you，而主句的主语是I，两者不一致，所以helping前的物主代词your不能省略。
一般说来，能带动名词作宾语的动词都可以根据语义意图在动名词之前加上或略去主语。但有些动词，如excuse，forgive，pardon等，其后的动名词结构总是带有逻辑主语。这些逻辑主语通常由名词或代词宾格表示，也可由名词属格或形容词性物主代词表示。
I do mind people smoking in public places．(名词宾格作逻辑主语)
We don't understand him needing so much money．(代词宾格作逻辑主
语)
I will never forgive his betraying me by breaking his promise．(物主代词作逻辑主语)
Mary excused the boy’s upsetting the ink．(名词属格作逻辑主语)
第六节分词
1．分词的形式
这里所讲的分词包括-ing分词和-ed分词，即传统意义上的现在分词和过去分词。现在分词由动词原形+-ing构成(如listening)；过去分词通常由动词原形+-ed构成(如listened)，但也有不规则形式(如go-gone)。现代英语的绝大多数都是规则动词，不规则的只是少数。
2．分词的基本用法
分词在句中通常可以用作表语、定语、补语和状语。下面按照现在分词和过去分词的用法分别作介绍。
现在分词的基本用法：
现在分词表示主动的意义；表示一般性的或正在进行的动作；在表现形式上有“一般式”和“完成式”与“主动式”和“被动式”之分，
1)作表语
现在分词作表语通常表示主语所具有的特征。例如：
This story is quite interesting．
The journey without you will be boring．
2)作定语
现在分词可以单独作定语，也可以构成合成词作定语，但在更多情况下是分词短语作定语，包括限定性和非限定性(用逗号与其他部分分开)，在意义上相当于一个定语从句。现在分词作定语通常带有主动意义和未完成意义。例如：
The man following was obviously in a hurry．(现在分词单独作定语) They acted just like a conquering army．(现在分词单独作定语)
Do you know the man standing over there by the door? (分词短语作限定性定语)
Last night，we caught a thief stealing John’s bike．(分词短语作限定性定语)
The name Nebraske comes from the Oto Indian word “ebrathka”，meaning flat water．(分词短语作非限定性定语)
3)作宾语补足语
a．表示感觉和心理状态的动词，如hear，feel，find，listen to，look at，watch，notice，observe，smell，see等词的宾语可以用现在分词作宾语补足语。例如：
I noticed him slipping away before the end of the meeting．
I can smell turkey roasting，and it's making me hungry．
b．表示“致使”等意义的动词，如catch，get，have，keep，leave，set等词的宾语可以用现在分词作宾语补足语。例如：
What I saw just now set me thinking of my childhood in the countryside． Please don't keep the machine running while you are away．
4)作状语
现在分词作状语表示主语在进行一动作的同时所进行的另一动作，它对谓语动词起修饰或陪衬的作用。这时要注意现在分词与其逻辑主语在时态和意义上的统一。例如：
Rushing out of the room，he was knocked down by a car．(作时间状语) = When he rushed out of the room，he was knocked down by a car． Working harder，you will pass the entrance exam. (作条件状语) = If you work harder，you will pass the entrance exam．
She sat at a window，reading a book．(作伴随状语)
=She sat at a window and read a book．
Having won the championship，he was awarded a million dollars．(作原因状语) =
Because he had won the championship，he was awarded a million dollars． Even if taking a taxi，I will still be late for the meeting．(作让步状语) = Even if take a taxi，I will still be late for the meeting．
The road is under construction，thus causing the delay． (作结果状语) = The road is under construction，and thus caused the delay.
注意，当现在分词作让步状语时，一般放在句首，常常由although，though，even if, unless等连词引入；作结果状语时，一般放在句末，前面可以加so，thus，hence，thereby等副词。
过去分词的基本用法：
与现在分词不同，过去分词表示被动的意义，表示已经完成和被动的
动作。在表现形式上，只有一种形式。
1)作表语
过去分词作表语表示主浯所处的状态。用作表浯的过去分词大多来自及物动词；不及物动词的过去分词能作表语的只限于少数表示位置转移的动词，如go，come，assemble等，它们用在连系动词之后，表示完成意义，无被动意义。例如：
The man looked quite disappointed．
He is greatly discouraged by her refusal．
His hair is nearly all gone.
已经形容词化了的过去分词大多可作表语，常见的有：accomplished，amazed，amused，astonished，broken，closed，completed，complicatcd， confused，crowded，devoted，disappointed，discouraged，drunk，excited，frightened，hurt，interested，lost，satisfied，surprised, worried等。
2) 做定语
a) 前置定语的过去分词通常来自及物动词，带有被动意义和完成意义。例如：
We like skating in the frozen lake in the winter．
= We like skating in the lake which has been frozen in the winter． How many finished products have you got up to now?
= How many products that have been finished have you got up to now? 来自不及物动词的过去分词很少能单独用作前置定语，能作这样用的仅限以下几个词，这时仅表示完成意义，不表示被动意义：
a retired worker = a worker who has retired
an escaped prisoner = a prisoner who has escaped
a faded／withered flower = a flower that has faded
the risen sun = the sun that has just risen
a returned student = a student who has returned
vanished treasure = treasure that has vanished
b)用作后置定语的过去分词通常也来自及物动词，表示被动意义和完成意义。这时相当于一个定语从句。例如：
Things seen are better than things heard．
= Things which are seen are better than things which are heard． The lobster broiled over charcoal was delicious．
= The lobster which was broiled over charcoal was delicious.
3) 做宾语补足语
a) see, hear, feel，find，think等表示感觉和心理状态的动词可以带过去分词作宾语补足语。例如：
Tom found himself involved in an awkward situation．
I saw Tom dressed like a beggar in the street．
Everybody thought the match lost until the last minute.
d) make, get, have, keep 等表示“致使”意义的动词可以带过去分词作宾语补足语。例如：
I have my clothes washed everyday.
Don't get your schedule changed；stay with us in the class．
He’s trying to make himself understood.
Please keep us informed of the latest price．
c)like，want，wish，order等表示希望、要求、命令等意义的动词可以带过去分词作宾语补足语。例如：
We don't like such topics (to be) discussed in class．
I wish this problem (to be) solved this week．
4)作状语
用作状语的过去分词通常来自及物动词。过去分词用作状语时，修饰主句的谓语动词，意义上相当于状语从句，表示时间、条件、原因、伴随状况等。过去分词作状语，前边往往可以加when, while, if，as if, though。一般说来，这种结构的逻辑主语必须与主句的主语一致。例如：
Whenever praised，she blushes．(作时间状语)
= Whenever she is praised，she blushes．
United，we stand；divided，we fall．(作条件状语)
= If we are united，we stand；If we are divided，we fall．
Written in great haste，this book is full of errors．(作原因状语) = Because this book is written in great haste，it is full of errors．
Mary was reading a love story，completely lost to the romantic life．(作伴随状浯)
= Mary was reading a love story，and was completely lost to the romantic life.
Although born in Germany，John lives and works in U.S.A. (作让步状语) = Although John was born in Germany，he lives and works in U.S.A.
3．分词的完成式及被动式
前面提到过，过去分词只有一种形式，所以这里所讲的完成式及被动式均指现在分词的完成式及被动式。
如果现在分词表示的是一般性动作，不表明动作的先后或与谓语动作同时发生，这时要用现在分词的一般形式。例如：
Living in the downtown，we found a lot of amusements．
如果现在分词所表示的动作先于句子谓语发生，就要用现在分词的完成式“(not) having+过去分词”。例如：
Having heard from my father，I was relieved．
Not having received any letter from my family，I was worried．
如果现在分词的逻辑主语是现在分词所表示的动作的对象，则要用现在分词的被动形式，包括其一般形式“(not) being+过去分词”和其完成形式“(not) having been+过去分词”。例如：
Upon being questioned，he denied having robbed the bank．
The new method，having been widely used abroad，can increase the working efficiency.
4．分词独立结构
如果过去分词或现在分词带有与句子主语不同的主语，这就构成了独立结构，也叫独立主格结构或垂悬结构，通常在句中起状语丛句的作用，表示原因、时间、条件、方式或伴随状况。例如：
The holidays being over，they began to get down to do their work again．(原因状语)
= As the holiday was over，they began to get down to do their work again． All things considered，her paper is of greater value than yours．(条件状语)
= All things are considered，her paper is of greater value than yours． His homework done，Johan went out to play. (时间状语)
= After his homework had been done，Johan went out to play．
The girl was smiling sweetly，her long hair flowing in the breeze．(伴随状语)
当独立结构表示伴随状况时，可变为由with引导的介词词组, 而表示否定意义的类似结构便可由without引导。例如上例可变为：
The girl was smiling sweetly with her long hair flowing in the breeze． Without anyone noticing，I slipped out of the room．
独立结构的位置比较灵活，它可以置于句首、句中或句末。另外，独立结构中用作主语的名词之前的限定词有时可以省略。例如： The manager sat quietly in his office，(his) eyes closed．
He stood in the doorway，(his) wet cloak dripping water on the rug，and waited for some sign of recognition．
第七节 前后呼应
主谓一致的基本原则
主谓一致有以下三条原则：
1)语法一致原则，即在语法形式上取得一致。例如，主语是单数形式，谓语动词也采取单数形式；主语是复数形式，谓语动词也采取复数形式。例如：The students are very young．
This picture looks beautiful．
2)意义一致原则，即从意义着眼处理一致关系。例如，主语形式虽是单数但意义是复数，谓语动词也采取复数形式；而有些主语形式虽是复数但意义上看作单数，谓语动词也采取单数形式。
The people in that country are fighting for independence．
The crowd deeply respect their leader．
Three years in a strange land seems a long time．
3)就近原则，即谓语动词的单数或复数形式取决于最靠近它的词语。例如：
Neither he nor I am going to see the film tonight because we are busy．
2．主谓一致的用法
根据以上三条原则，主谓一致有如下用法：
1)下列结构作主语，谓语动词一般用单数形式
a．表示时间、重量、长度、价值的名词作主语，谓语动词通常用单数形式。例如：
Two hundred miles is a long distance．
Ten dollars is a high price for that book．
b．由anyone，anything，anybody，no one，nothing，everyone，everybody，
everything，someone，somebody，each，either，neither等不定代词作主语，谓语动词使用单数形式。例如：
Someone is knocking at the door．
Anything is better than going to the movie tonight．
c．由“a series of，a kind of，a portion of +名词”作主语，谓语动词应用单数形式。例如：
A series of debates is scheduled to be held next week．
d．由“many a，more than one +单数名词”作主语，尽管意义上表示复数，但谓语动词仍采用单数形式。例如：
Many a person in these circumstances has hoped for a long break． There is more than one answer to your question．
e．“名词+and+名词”作主语，表示同一人、同一概念或事物时，谓语动词用单数形式。例如：
A writer and educator is giving a lecture now．(这个人既是作家又是教育家)
f．“either (neither) + of +复数名词(或代词)”作主语，谓语动词用单数形式。例如：
If either of you takes a vacation now，we will not be able to finish the work．
Neither of them wants to come．
g．在each?and each?，every?and every?等结构之后，谓语动词用单数形式。例如：
Each man and each woman has the right to vote．
h．动词不定式、动名词或分句作主语时，谓语动词一般用单数形式。例如：
What I want to say is none of your business．
Listening to the classical music is enjoyable．
i．以-ics结尾的复数名词指一门学科时，如politics(政治学)，mathematics(数学)，statistics(统计学)，acoustics(声学)，linguistics(语言学)等，谓语动词用单数形式。例如：
Mathematics is what he majors in．
2)下列结构作主语，谓语动词单复数形式取决于of后的名词。
a．由“a11，none，no，most，half，the last，the rest，the remainder+of+名词”等不定代词作主语，谓语动词单复数形式由of后名词的单复数而定。例如：
None of the food is wasted．
None of the students were absent．
The rest of the lecture was dull．
The rest of the bikes were on sale yesterday．
b．由"lots of，heaps of，loads Of，scads of +名词”作主语，谓语动词单复数形式由of后名词的单复数而定。例如：
Lots of work is to be done this week.
Lots of people are going to swim this afternoon．
There is loads of milk on the farm．
There are loads of big red apples on the ground．
There is heaps of fun．
c．由“分数或百分数十of +名词或代词”作主语，谓语动词的单复数形式取决于of后名词或代词的单复数形式。例如：
Three-quarters of the area is cultivated.
Ninety percent of the students have passed the exam．
3)下列结构作主语，谓语动词的单复数形式根据意义而定。
a．由“the+形容词” 这种结构作主语，根据意义一致的原则决定谓语动词的单复数形式。如果表示一类人 (如the rich，the poor，the blind，the deaf，the sick，the young，the old)，谓语动词用复数形式；如果表示个人或抽象概念，谓语动词用单数形式。例如：
The blind are taught trades in special schools． (表示一类人) The good in him overweighs the bad． (表示抽象概念)
The departed was a good friend of his． (表示个人)
b．family，crowd，committee，class，audience，group，government，team，public，majority，minority等集合名词作主语，谓语动词单复数形式应根据意义而定。例如：
The family like to listen to the music．(the family指这家人，用作复数) The family is small．(the family指这个家庭，用作单数)
The committee has considered your proposal．(the committee指委员会，用作单数)
The committee were arguing for an hour before they gave their
votes． (the committee指委员会的委员们，用作复数)
4) 下列结构作主语，谓语动词一般单复数均可。
a. 以数词为名词词组中心词作主语时，谓语动词一般单复数均可。例如：
Five and six make／makes eleven．
Seven times ten are seventy．
但是：Twenty from thirty leaves ten．
Six sevens are forty-two.
b．由"one in／out of +名词”作主语，谓语动词单复数均可。例如： One in ten were／was present．
5) 下列结构作主语，谓语动词用复数形式。
由and或both?and连接两个单数形式的名词词组作主语时，一般谓语动词用复数形式。例如：
A girl and a boy want to go．
Both rice and wheat are grown in that country．
6)下列结构作主语，谓语动词单复数形式视具体情况而定。
a．由as well as，together with，besides, like，along with，with but，except，accompanied by，rather than，including连接两个名词作主语，谓语单复数形式应由连接词前的名词而定。例如：
The president of the college，together with the deans，is planning a conference for the purpose of laying down certain regulations． The young mother with her two children is coming now．
The plant manager，like many technicians，is experienced in designing new products．
b．“名词+of+名词”作主语，谓语动词单复数形式跟of前的名词一致。例如：
The picture of the children brings back many memories of my past experiences．
The effects of cigarette smoking have been proved to be extremely harmful．
c．由not only?but also，either?or，neither?nor或or连接的并列主语，通常根据就近一致原则，谓语动词的单复数形式由最接近它的名词词组的单复数形式决定。例如：
He or you have taken my pen．
Neither the students nor the teacher knows anything about it．
One or two days are enough to visit the city.
d．there be句型中的谓语动词单复数形式一般取决于其后的真正主语的单复数形式。例如：
There is a garden in front of the house．
There are two things I'd like to say here．
7)关于几对容易混淆词组的一致用法
a．由"this／that kind／type of +名词”作主语，谓语动词用单数形式；而由"these／those kind／type of +复数名词”作主语，谓语动词用复数形式。例如：
This kind of apples is highly priced．
Those kind(s) of tests are good．
b．由“a number of，a total of，an average of +复数名词”作主语，谓语动词用复数形式；由“the number of，the total of，the average of +复数名词”作主语，谓语动词用单数形式。例如：
A number of students are waiting for the bus．
The number of the students in this university is increasing yearly. c．one of，the (only) one of的一致用法
This is one of the books that have been recommended．
This is the (only) one of the books that has been recommended．
3．前后呼应的用法
1)当everyone，everybody，no one，nobody，anyone，anybody，someone，somebody，everything，anything，something，nothing等用作主语时，其相应的代词一般用单数形式。例如：
If anybody calls，tell him that I'm out．
Something strange happened，didn't it?
Every passenger has to carry his own luggage．
2)人称代词与名词的呼应：人称代词I (me)，he (him)，she (her)，it (it)都是代替前面的单数名词，而they (them)，we (us)则是代替复数名词的，you既可以代表单数，也可以代表复数。但表示泛指的时候，用he或one来表示。例如：
If a young person enters a classical music field only for money，he is in the
wrong profession．
The leaves of the red maple are highly poisonous to horses and when ingested can kill them within fifteen hours。
3)物主代词与名词的呼应：my，our，his，her，its，their要与代替的名词在数上一致。例如：
The welfare department，as well as the other social services，will have its budget cut．
Delphins are warm-blooded；that is，their body temperature always stays about the same，regardless of the surroundings．
4)反身代词与其所代成分间的呼应。
Many primitive people believed that by eating an animal they could get some of the good qualities of that animal for themselves.
Everybody clings to this illusion about himself．
I have just been out to get myself a cup of tea．
5)指示代词与所代名词间的呼应：this和that指代单数名词或不可数名词，these和those指代复数名词 (those还可以用作先行词，引导定语从句，表示“那些人”)。例如：
She invited all those who had been her former colleagues．
The amount of the pressure caused by the weight of a column of fluid is determined by the height of this column．
6) much和much of后接不可数名词，而many和many of后接可数名词的复数。例如：
There is not much coal left．
A great many of the houses were knocked down by the earthquake．
7)表示量的词后面有的接可数名词，有的接不可数名词。接可数名词的有：a number of，a range of，a series of十复数名词；接不可数名词的有：a great deal of，an amount of十不可数名词；既可接可数又可接不可数名词的有：a lot of，a variety of。例如：
The government attached a great deal of importance to education． Quite a number of women applied for this job．
The college library has a variety of books．
An apple is a variety of fruit．
A wide range of disorders can affect the human muscular system．
第八节．反意疑问句
1. 反意疑问句的形式
反意疑问句一般有以下四种形式：
肯定陈述句+否定反意疑问。例如：
This pencil is red，isn't it?
否定陈述句+肯定反意疑问。例如：
This pencil isn't red，is it?
肯定陈述句+肯定反意疑问。例如：
This pencil is red，is it?
否定陈述句+否定反意疑问。例如：
This pencil isn't red，isn't it?
前两种形式是主要的，后两种不常见。
2. 反意疑问句的用法
1)当陈述部分是there be句型时，反意疑问部分的主语用there。例如： There aren’t a lot of flowers in the garden in winter，are there? There existed different opinions on this issue，didn’t there?
2)当陈述部分是以不定代词one作主语时，反意疑问部分的主语在正式场合用one，在非正式场合用you。例如：
One cannot succeed at this，can one?
One cannot succeed at this，can you?
3)当陈述部分是I’m?结构时，反意疑问部分一般用aren't I。例如： I am a student，aren’t I?
4)当陈述部分是一个带有that引导的宾语从句的复合结构时，反意疑问部分一般根据主句的主语和谓语动词而定。例如：
You told me (that) I had passed the exam，didn’t you?
He says that everybody in our class will attend the meeting，doesn’t he? 但是，当陈述部分的主句是I think，I suppose，I believe等结构时，反意疑问部分则往往由that从句中的主语和谓语动词决定，并且要注意否定的转移。例如：
I believe (that) it is going to rain，isn’t it?
I don't think (that) he will come，will he?
5)当陈述部分的谓语动词是have时，反意疑问部分要根据have的意
义及形式而定。
a．当have表示“所有”含义时，反意疑问可以用have形式，也可以用do形式。例如：
He has a book in his hand，hasn't he?
He has a book in his hand，doesn’t he?
b．当陈述部分的动词是have的否定形式时，反意疑问部分是用have形式还是用do形式，取决于陈述部分的动词形式。例如： You haven't a car，have you?
You don't have any money with you，do you?
c．当have不表示“所有”含义而表示其他含义时，反意疑问句则必须用do的形式。例如：
We had a good time in the vacation，didn’t we?
He has his breakfast at seven everyday，doesn’t he?
You have to get up early tomorrow，don’t you?
6)当陈述部分带有never，nothing，nowhere，seldom，hardly，rarely，few，little等否定词或半否定词时，反意疑问部分的动词用肯定形式。例如：
The summit meeting never took place，did it?
You can hardly believe what he said，can you?
There is little ink in the bottle，is there?
Few people know this place，do they?
当陈述部分的谓语动词是带有un-，in-，im-，dis- 等否定前缀的动词，
则仍然把陈述部分看作肯定句，那么反意疑问部分用否定形式。例如： He is impolite to the teacher，isn’t he?
He distrusted anybody around him，didn’t he?
7) 当陈述部分带有情态动词ought to时，反意疑问部分在英式英语中用ought to形式，在美式英语中用should形式。例如：
You ought to see the new picture，shouldn’t you?
Teachers ought to be honoured，oughtn’t they?
8)当陈述部分带有情态动词used to时，反意疑问部分可以用used to形式，也可以用did形式。例如：
She used to live abroad，usedn’t she?
There used to be a news stand in the corner of the street，didn’t there?
9) 当陈述部分带有情态动词must时，反意疑问部分需视must的含义而定。
a．当must表示“命令或强制”时，反意疑问部分用mustn't。例如： You must do it by yourself，mustn’t you?
b．当must表示“有必要”时，反意疑问部分用needn't。例如： You must see him tonight，needn’t you?
c．当must表示“一定”或“想必”等推测意义时，反意疑问部分不用mustn't，而要根据must后的动词形式而定。例如：
He must be crazy to do so，isn’t he?
She must have been there for a long time，hasn’t she?
They must have stayed at home last night，didn’t they?
10)当陈述部分带有need时，反意疑问部分需视need的含义而定。如果need用作情态动词，则反意疑问部分用need形式；如果need用作实义动词，表示“需要”，则反意疑问部分用do形式。例如： You needn't go there，need you?
She needs to go there，doesn’t she?
Plants need sun to grow，don’t they?
11)当陈述部分带有I'd better或I’d rather时，反意疑问部分用hadn't或wouldn't。例如 ：
You'd better finish the task before tomorrow，hadn’t you?
He’d rather stay with us，wouldn't he?
12)当陈述部分是祈使句时，反意疑问部分一般用will you，won't you，would you。例如：
Don't be too late，will you?
Close the door，won’t you?
Come here，will you?
Open your books，would you?
12) 陈述部分是以Let’s开头的祈使句时，反意疑问部分用shall we；若是以Let us开头的祈使句，反意疑问部分则用will you。例如： Let’s have a party tonight，shall we?
Let us have a look at your pictures，will you?
注意, 如果祈使句是否定形式，那么反意疑问句只能用will you。例如： Don't forget to bring your notebooks here tomorrow，will you?
第九节 强调句
这里讲的强调句主要是以it为引导词的分裂句。它的结构形式是：It+be的一定形式+被强调成分+ that-／who- 分句(只有当被强调成分是句子的人称主语时，连接词才可以用who，此时也可以用that：其余情况下只能用that)。通过这种结构可以强调除谓语动词外的大多数句子成分。例如：
It was Mary that／who needed the cash．
It was the cash that Mary needed．
It was from Henry that John bought the car．
It was the car that John bought from Henry．
此结构可以强调多种多样的状语成分，例如强调时间状语、地点状语、方式状语，也可以强调由because引导的原因状语分句，但不可以强调由since／as引导的原因状语分句，也不可以强调由although和whereas引导的从属或并列分句。例如：
It was before liberation that our people suffered from the imperialist aggression．
It is in Iran that the family members participate in the wedding preparations．
It was because he'd never had the opportunity that John hadn't learned to drive．
如果要强调谓语动词，通常采用另一种句型：主语通常是由what引导
的名词性分句；分句的主动词通常是do的一定形式；主语补语通常是不定式结构，可带to，也可不带to。例如：
The pupils elected him monitor of the class。
强调谓语动词elected，变为：
What the pupils did was elect／to elect him monitor of the class．
第十节 虚拟语气
虚拟语气是说话人为表示一种假设的情况或一种主观的愿望，即认为动词所表示的动作或状态并非事实或主观设想时所用的语气。 虚拟语气的形式与用法：
1．有一类虚拟语气的形式称为be型虚拟式，即不管主语是什么人称，动词一律用原形(或should+动词原形)。
以下几种情况必须用be型虚拟式：
1)一些表示命令，要求，决定，建议等概念的动词后由that引导的宾语从句中，必须用be型虚拟式。这类动词有：ask (要求)，advise(建议)，command (命令)，decide (决定)，demand (命令)，insist (坚持)，move (提议)，order (命令)，propose (提议)，recommend (建议)，request (要求)，require (要求)，suggest (建议)，urge (极力主张)。例如： We strongly suggest that he (should) be told about it earlier．
The doctor insisted that his patient take it easy for three months． I require that they come by ten．
I recommended that each competitor receive $100．
The judge ordered that the witness tell the truth．
2)一些表示主张、要求、命令、愿望、建议等概念后的主语从句中，必须用be型虚拟式。此类词主要有：
It is necessary, essential (重要的)，advisable(应该的)，appropriate(合适的)，desirable (值得的)，fitting (合适的)，important (重要的), imperative (必须的)，obligatory (必须的)，proper (适当的)，strange (奇怪的)，urgent (紧要的)，vital (极重要的) that?；
It is (was, has been) suggested (decided，desired，ordered，proposed，requested) that? 例如：
It is highly desirable that a new president be appointed．
It is important that everybody have his health checked yearly． I think it advisable that he leave soon.
It is decided that you be the first one to do the experiment．
3)一些表示主张、要求、命令等概念的名词后面由that引导的同位语从句中，通常用be型虚拟式。这类词主要有：advice，command，importance，idea，insistence，motion (提议)，necessity，order，plan，proposal (建议)，recommendation (建议)，request，requirement, resolution (决议)，suggestion，understanding (协议)。例如：
My suggestion is that he be sent to help this group．
4) 在lest，for fear that或in case表示“生怕，以防万一，免得”引导的从句中，从句常常用should。例如：
He studied day and night，lest he should fail in the test．
We dare not play jokes on him for fear that he should become angry． Be quiet in case you should wake the baby．
5)某些表示祝愿、诅咒、禁止等的语句中用be型虚拟式。例如： God bless you!
God damn you!
Long live Chairman Mao!
Heaven forbid!
2．下列两种句型，从句总是用一般过去式表示虚拟语气。
1) It is (high) time that (该做??，必须做??)，丛句用一般过去时。例如：
It is time that he went to bed now．
It is high time that this wrong spending was checked．
2) would rather, would sooner, had rather这些表示“宁愿”的短语后面的从句中的谓语动词应使用一般过去时表示虚拟语气。例如： Don't come today．1 would rather you came tomorrow．
He had rather his children didn’t make so much noise．
I would sooner we had dinner now．
3．If引导的条件状语从句的虚拟语气用法
If引导的从句的虚拟语气主要有三种结构：
1)与现在情况相反：主句谓语用“would／could／might +动词原形”，从句谓浯用“动词的一般过去式”(be的过去式一律用were)。例如： If I had time，I would go with you．
If I were you，I might refuse the engagement．
2)与过去情况相反：主句谓语用"would／could + havedone'’，从句渭语用“动词的过去完成式”。例如：
If I hadn’t lost my way，I would have caught the last train．
They would have arrived earlier if there had been no storm．
3) 与将来情况相反：主句谓语用"would／could／might +动词原形”，从句谓语用"were to／should+动词原形”。例如：
If you were to see Mary，what would you tell her?
If I were to do it，I would do it in a different way．
If it should rain tomorrow，I would stay at home．
4) 省略if的虚拟语气句。
虚拟条件从句中的谓语动词如果是were，should，had等词时，可以省略连词if, 但必须将were，should，had等词移至主浯前形成句子倒装。例如：
Had he been given some information about it, he could have answered the question．
Were you to get up earlier，you wouldn’t be late．
4．Wish后的宾语从句中的虚拟语气用法
动词wish后跟由that引导的宾语从句(that经常被省略)要用虚拟浯气表示一种不可实现的愿望。
1)宾语从句用过去式表示与现在事实相反。例如：
I wish I had enough time to finish my homework today．
My brother is in Europe on vacation，but I wish he were here with me．
2)宾浯从句用过去完成时表示与过去事实相反。例如：
I wish 1 had gone to the movies with you last night．
I wish Professor Lee had taught me this equation．
3)宾语从句用“would/could +动词原型”表示一种愿望或要求。例如：I wish that you would come next time．
She wishes that you could stay here longer．
5．由as if／as though引导的状语从句表示方式时，意思是“好像”，这时从句中的谓语动词应用虚拟语气。
1)状语从句用过去式 (be用were的形式)表示与现在的事实相反。例如：
He treats me as if I were a stranger．
2)状语从句用过去完成式表示与过去的事实相反。例如： He talked as if he had been to Australia.
6.介词或介词短语表示虚拟：有时假设的情况并不以条件从句表示出来，而是通过一个介词或介词短语来表示，或通过上下文表示出来。如but for，but that，with，without，otherwise，on condition (that)，in case of，supposing，on the understanding that等表示让步假设。例如： If I hadn’t got your help，I wouldn't have found my present job． = Without your help，I wouldn't have found my present job．
= But for your help，1 wouldn't have found my present job．
= But that you helped me，I wouldn't have found my present job．
7. 错综虚拟条件句：一般来说，主句和从句的谓语动词形式应前后呼
应。但是有时主句和从句的动作发生的时间不一致，谓语动词的形式
应作相应的调整，如：从句用过去虚拟语气，主句用现在虚拟语气(通
常可以根据时间状语而定)。
Had it not been for the timely investment from the general public，our
company would not be so thriving as it is．
If Paul had receivd six more votes in the last election，he would be our
chairman now．
If you had studied the problem carefully yesterday，you would not find
any difficulty now.
8．此外，还有省略了结果主句的虚拟语气if only结构，一般表示愿
望。if only从句中的时态有三种：V+ed；be用were；情态动词用could
／would／might+v。例如：
If only he saw me now! 要是他现在能看到我那该多好!
If only she had not been married! 要是她没有结过婚就好了!
If only the committee would approve the regulations and put them into
第十一节、倒 装
倒装(inversion)是一种语法手段，用以表示一定句子结构的需要和强调
某一句子成分的需要。英语的最基本的结构是主、谓结构，倒装就是
将这种比较固定的词序加以颠倒。倒装有两种。将主语和谓语完全颠
倒过来，叫做完全倒装 (complete inversion)。如：
How goes the time?
Then began a bitter war between the two countries.于是两国之间开始了恶战。
只将助动词(包括情态动词)移至主语之前，叫做部分倒装。如： At no time was the entrance left unguarded．
Seldom have we felt as comfortable as here．我们难得像在这里这么舒服。
句子结构需要的倒装。为了句子结构的需要而进行倒装的情况有下列几种。
1)疑问句。如：
Are you from here?
Who was that?
2)祝愿句。如：
Long live peace!
May you succeed!
So be it．就这样吧。
3)某些感叹句。如：
There goes the bell．打铃了。
Here comes the bus!
Judith，how lovely are you!
[注]由副词there和here引导的倒装感叹句不可用人称代词，如不可说 Here comes he. 而须说Here he comes。
4) There+be结构。如：
There lived an old peasant in that house．
There seems to be some misunderstanding about the matter．
5)其直接引语位于句首的陈述句。如：
“It’s too late，” said Millian．
“ This is the house where Shakespeare was born，”said George．
6) 地点状语位于句首、主语为名词而谓语为不及物动词的陈述句。如： From the window came sound of music．
7)某些条件从句。如：
Had I the time, I would go．
Were you in my position，you would do the same．
She’ll be sixteen come May．到5月她就16岁了。
All right，if stay you must，go and sit down properly over there． 好吧，如你必须留下，那你就在那里坐好。
8)某些让步从句。如：
Look as I would up and down，I could see no human being．我尽管望上望下，还是看不到一个人。
Toil as he would，he might fall，and go down and be destroyed! 他尽管苦干，还是可能失败、沉沦而被毁灭!
Change your mind as you will，you will gain no additional support．你即使改变主意，也不会再得到援助。
9)代词so，neither，nor等副词置于句首时，全句常需倒装。如：
If you can do it，so can I．
If you don't go，neither shall I.
I don't know，nor do I care．
10) Never，seldom，little，nor，hardly，scarcely，no sooner，not only等表否定的副词或连词位于句首时，全句需要倒装。如：
Never in my life have I seen such a thing．
Seldom have we felt as comfortable as here．
No sooner had he arrived than he fell ill.
Scarcely had he arrived when they asked him to leave again．他刚一到来，他们就又请他离去。
Not only did he hear it，but he saw it as well．
11) only位于句首并后跟状语时，全句需要倒装。如：
Only then did he understand. 只有那时，他才明白。
由only引导的从句位于句首时，主语亦应倒装。如：
Only when she came home did he learn the news．只有当她回家时他才知道这消息。
12)主语部分较长需要后置时，全句需要倒装。如：
They erect a bronze tablet on which is carved“The Yellow River Source”. 他们立了一面铜牌，上面写着“黄河之源”。(on which…是倒装结构)
To this class belongs the most astonishing work that the author accomplished．
属于这一类的有作者所完成的一部最惊人的著作。
Sitting at her desk in deep concentration was my sister Flora．She looked as though she had spend a sleepless night．我妹妹弗洛拉伏案沉思，好像一夜未睡似的。(后一句意义上相等于从句)
13)为了上下文的衔接，全句需要倒装。如：
“Now，I have no opinion of that policy．” “我可对这项政策没有好感。” “I sure have，”came a sarcastic gravelly growl from the admiral．“我当然有啰，”这是发自海军将军的讥讽而粗哑的咆哮声。(用came．．．admiral倒装结构是为了和上文相衔接)
The girl who loves him so deeply finds herself unable to forgive his mistake．Around this point develops the sketch，which is humorous and full of a strong local flavor．那个钟爱他的姑娘觉得她不能饶恕他的错误。围绕这一点就写成了这一短剧，它不但幽默，而且充满了浓郁 的地方风味。(第二句倒装。显然由于句首around this point与上文衔接的缘故)
强调需要的倒装
这是为了强调某一句子成分而进行的倒装。这种倒装大致有下列几种。
1)谓语置于句首。
a)谓语动词置于句首。如：
I’m going back to Washington to fight for it, believe you me．我要回到华盛顿为此而斗争，你相信我吧。(强调believe)
At last he finds himself in a garden，full of beautiful flowers of strange forms，and watered by streams of crystal in which are swimming marvellous fish with scales of rubies and gold．他终于发现自己来到一个花园，这里到处是奇异的花卉，还有那清澈的溪水，里面游着珍贵的具有红玉般和金黄色的鱼鳞的鱼。(这里将谓语are swimming前置也是由于主语较长之故)
有时倒装结构为主要动词+主语+助动词。如：
Go I can't．我不能去。(强调主要动词go)
Yield he would not．屈服他是不干的。(强调主要动词yield)
有时倒装结构为主要动词+宾语+主语+助动词，其主要动词
往往是重复前文中的动词。如：
They have promised to finish the work and finish it they will．他们保证完成这项工作，而且他们一定会完成的。(强调主要动词finish)
Save him she could not；but she avenged him in the most terrible fashion afterwards．她不能救他，但后来她以最可怕的方式为他报了仇。 (此句中的倒装结构强调主要动词save，其上文虽无save一词，但有与其类似的动词)
有时倒装结构为助动词+主语+(主要动词)，如：
John was taken completely by surprise by the news, as was Susan．这消息完全出乎约翰的意料，也完全出乎苏珊的意料。
(as后的助动词was置于主语之前，是为强调主语；省去了主要动词) They looked upon him as a trusted friend，as did many others he had deceived． 他们和他所欺骗的许多人一样，也把他看作可以信赖 的朋友。(替代词did置于主语之前以强调主语，省去了主要动词) b)过去分词置于句首。如：
Also discussed was a revenue-raising proposal to hike the sales tax… 也讨论了增加销售税的提高税收建议??(这里倒装是由于主语较长) Also said to be under consideration is a performance in Beijing．据说也考虑在北京上演。(这里过去分词与also连用，全句强调主语performance，倒装亦与上下文衔接有关)
c)现在分词+be十主语。如：
Covering much of the earth's surface is a blanket of water．地球表面上许多地方都布满了水。
Facing the lake was a little inn with its pillared veranda．湖的对面是一个柱廊的小旅店。
这种倒装结构多半已变成词序固定的句型。在新闻文体中，现
在进行时的现在分词亦可进行倒装。如：
Throwing the hammer is champion William Anderson，who is a hard-working shepherd in the Highlands of Scotland．正在掷链球的是冠军威廉·安德森，他是苏格兰高地上的一位勤劳的牧民。(这里自然是强调现在分词throwing，但倒装亦与主语较长有关)
d)引述动词+主语+直接引语。这种结构常用于新闻体。如：
Declared rosecutor Roy Amlot：“It was one of the most callous acts of all time．”检察官罗伊·阿默朗特宣称：“这是最最淡漠无情的行为之一。” Said he：“We confront great evils and we need great solutions.” 他说道： “我们面对着重大的邪恶，我们需要重大的决策。”
2)表语置于句首。
a)形容词+连系动词+主语。如：
Present at the meeting were Professor Smith，Professor Brown，Sir Hugh and many other celebrities．到会的有史密斯教授、勃朗教授、休爵士以及许多其他知名人士。(这种倒装结构已经定型)
Far be it from me to condemn him in any way．我决不会以任何方式谴责他。(这种倒装结构亦已成定型)
b)过去分词十连系动词+主语。如:
Gone are the days when they could do what they liked to the Chinese people．他们能够对中国人民为所欲为的日子一去不复返了。(强调过去分词gone，同时也是由于主语较长)
c)介词短语十be+主语。如：
Among the goods are Christmas trees，flowers，candles，turkeys and
toys．货品中有圣诞树、花卉、蜡烛、火鸡和玩具。(这种倒装结构已成定型)
Amid the gaseous pollutants they inhale are carbon monoxide，sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide，hydrochloric acid，ammonia and hydrocarbons．在他们所呼吸的污染气体中有一氧化碳、二氧化硫、氮氧化物、盐酸、氨和碳氢化合物。(此种倒装亦已定型)
d)不定式+be+主语。如：
First to unfold were the two 14-foot-wide drogue chutes，which criented the craft and continued slowing it．首先要打开的是那两个14英尺宽的拖靶斜槽，这两个东西使飞机定向，并继续使之减速。
3)宾语置于句首。如：
“Yes，”said the youth shortly．“是的，”那个小伙子简短地说道。 Someone once said Australia is a country born to alcoholism．A man would pay $5 to get drunk and $8 to get home，goes the jest.有人说过，澳大利亚是生性嗜酒的国家。有一个笑话说，那里的人会花5元钱喝醉后，再花8元钱回家。
4)状语置于句首。
a)某些副词+倒装结构。如：
Just then a along came Tom．就在这时，汤姆来了。
Just then in walked Isabella with a radiant face．正值此时刻，伊莎贝拉
容光焕发地走了进来。
[注]短语动词的小品词一般不可前置，如不可说Up cracked the soldier。 又，上述例句中如用人称代词则不可倒装，如必须说，In she walked。 Then did I throw myself into a chair，exhausted．这时我累得一下就坐在椅子上了。
Only in this way can we learn English．只有这样才能学会英语。
[注]副词only后接非状语时则不可倒装。
So bright was the moon that the flowers bright as by day．皓月当空，花朵就像白天那样鲜艳。
Crack goes the whip．啪的一声鞭子响了。
b)介词短语十倒装结构。如：
By his side sat his faithful dog．在他的旁边蹲着他的忠实的狗。(介词短语表地点)
Many a time as a boy have I climbed that hill．我在童年时期曾多次爬过那座山。(介词短语表时间)
Up the valleys，down the valleys go they，saying， “Here is a place to build a breast—work；here can you pitch a fort．．．”他们沿着山谷走上走下，说着，“这里是筑胸墙的地方，这里可以修一堡垒??”(介词短语表方向)
With it was mingled far-away cheering．远处的欢呼声与此融在一起。(介
词短语表伴随)
c)表示否定的词语十倒装结构。如：
Nor once did he talk to me． 他一次也没有和我谈过。
Never did he speak about his own merits．他从不讲他自己的功绩。 Seldom has a devoted teacher been so splendidly rewarded．一位忠诚的教师很少受到如此好的报答。
Hardly had he arrived when she started complaining．他一到家，她就抱怨起来。
Little did I think that we were talking together for the last time．我没有想到我们这次谈话竟成诀别。
No sooner had he arrived than he went away again．他刚到家就又走了。 Not only did they present a musical performance，but they also gave a brief introduction to the history of Western brass instruments．他们不但做了音乐表演，而且简短地介绍了西方铜管乐器的历史。
[注]但不是所有以not开头的句子都必须倒装，如下面的句子即可不倒装：
Not a soul was to be seen．一个人也看不见。
Not that I know of．就我所知不是这样。
effect as soon as possible．要是委员会通过这些规定并尽快实施就好了!