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题 目：Analysis of the contextual meaning of English Word
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1 设计（论文）题目及专题：Analysis of the contextual meaning of English Word
2 学生设计（论文）时间：自年日开始至年日止
3 设计（论文）所用资源和参考资料：
〔1〕Nida , E .A . Language in Culture and Society. New York : Harper&Row . 1964. (the whole book)
〔2〕Ogden, C. K and Richard, I. A. The Meaning of Meaning 〔M〕. London: Rout ledge and Kegan PAUL. 1923. (the whole book)
〔3〕Saeed, J. I. Semantics. Oxford: Blackwell. 1997. (from page 53 to 132)
〔4〕胡壮麟.语言学教程〔M〕.北京：北京大学出版社.2005.6 (the whole book)
〔5〕何伟.英语语篇中的时态研究. 北京大学出版社.2008.2 (from page 50 to 193)
4 设计（论文）完成的主要内容：
Ⅰ． Contextual Meaning and Figures of Speech
5 提交设计（论文）形式 （设计说明与图纸或论文等）及要求：
〔1〕要求认真、独立完成毕业论文（设计）的写作
〔2〕要求按照学校规定的论文（设计）格式撰写论文（设计）
〔3〕要求及时同指导老师进行沟通，按步骤完成论文（设计）的写作和答辩工作。
6 发题时间：年 月
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Analysis of the contextual meaning of English Words
Abstract
As is known to us, the context is the environment that the word is used, it often determines the exact meaning of words. Nowadays, more and more words appear to express new concepts with the development of the science and technology. But not every concept has its own word. Therefore, many common words are used to express some new concepts, then a common word has its special meaning due to the place where it is used, namely contextual meaning. In this paper, the author divides context into two parts: figures of speech, culture. The analysis on contextual meaning of English words is able to provide a clue for understanding the meaning of English words used in some special context rightly as well as to avoid embarrassment caused by interpreting a word literally.
Key Words
English words; context; contextual meaning
Ⅰ． Contextual Meaning and Figures of Speech
Ti is known to all that language is the means of communication. In communication, figurative language is often employed by writers or speakers to make his idea concrete and vivid. A fresh, proper figure of speech can appeal to the imagination, create mental picture and make the speech or writing vivid, impressive and interesting. English, as a communication device, are full of figures of speech. Most of figures of speech are based on resemblance in image. They may be direct or implied comparison, likening inanimate objects to people or addressing them as such. Some figures of speech are based on the association between the things and people, between the part and the whole, or between opposite things, etc. others come into being through usage, proverbial relationship or exaggeration. To
English learner, what matter after all is not exactly how many kinds of figures of speech there are in English language, but how well one can learn to understand and even make use of them. Words to an essay are bricks to a building, or molecules to a substance, small as they are, unimportant they are not, to some extent, the figures of speech can be treated as the contexts of English word. Therefore, in order to study the contextual meaning of English words which used figuratively. So the author in this paper analyzes some common figures of speech context in English language.
A. Metonymy
As we know the name of an object or concept are often replaced with some other words related to or suggested by the original, so the original of course has its contextual meaning. Here is an example for illustration:
The Cross, the Crown, the Scales may all
As we have been the Sword----Robert Frast
In this sentence, the Cross does not mean a shape like an upright post with a bar cross it, but stand for the Christian religion; the Crown is not a circular decoration usually made of gold with jewels in it, which a king or queen wears on their head, but represent power; the Scales is not a machine for weighing things, but stand for trade. Another example as followings may be much clearer.
Whenever you come into a DIY restaurant, you can see an advertisement mark Beware of the Bottle. Does it mean that you should be careful with the glass or plastic container for liquids? In fact, the word bottle presents a definite picture of the wine container, and this sentence may remind you beware of drinking wine.
It is a common phenomenon that metonymy is used in social communication. It is difficult to list all the examples that metonymy is used in our life, but we can clearly understand the meaning of the word which used in metonymy through this conclusion: In metonymy, since the name of an object or concept is often replaced with some other words related to or suggested by the original, so the contextual
meaning of the words refers to the meaning which the original related to or suggested.
B Metaphor
Metaphors are found in all languages. They can make vivid; what is more, they can bring so much life to language. English is rich in metaphor and one often finds expressions such as following:
She has a heart of stone----she is callous, iron-heart. He is a fox----he is sly, cunning, crafty, and tricky. In those examples above, it can be found that stone and fox are used to make striking comparison; one can image how dull the statement would be without the metaphors. But metaphors in English language may not be easily understand by English language learners, they may have come across sentences like Tom have done.
Tom saw his friend John was bullied on his way home, but did not help John. “You chicken ”, John said, looking at Tom with contempt.
Students may have been puzzled, unless they know that chicken here means a coward, a person without courage.
From the example cited above, it is clear that people often associate certain qualities with certain creatures or objects. These qualities often arouse reactions or emotion. Similarly, metaphorical expressions are very common in speech and text. They serve the purpose of relating something that is difficult or abstract to something that is more concrete or imaginable. Besides embodying the overall meaning of something in more concrete terms, they also help us describe and convey our feelings and attitude about people and situations. In contrast, there is often a background for such association to the speaker, but the qualities that are associated, or the emotions that are aroused, may not always be understood by the language learners. As a result, one thing can be concluded is that the contextual meaning of words used in metaphor often refers to the characters of the original.
C Allusion
It is well- know that in most languages people are likely to embellish their speech or writing in reference to characters or events that has dramatic and vivid connotation. English has a tremendous amount of allusions, which result from mythology, fables, historical or events, fairy tales, the Bible, famous literary works and so on. Such references----allusions not only make the language richer, but also make people who use it much more relaxed and easier. But occasionally because allusion is a reflection of rich culture heritage of the people who use it, such allusions are not always easy to understand, especially for foreign language learner. It is impossible for applying a language without understanding word’s meaning, for example:
This is the Cadillac of Chinese tea.
That project, which seemed so promising, turned out to be a Pandora’s Box in the former example, people may be puzzled by the Cadillac, but the background information may help you. In the 20th century, hi-tech gives birth to hi-tech products, then hi-tech products lead to brand-name products, after it brand-name products become allusions which go beyond their original meaning of their own. Cadillac is a famous car, usually refers to things of high quality. So the former sentence means this is the first-rate Chinese tea. Similarly, people often say Cadillac of German beer.
In the latter example, language learner may be puzzled because Pandora’s Box here is an allusion. In Greek mythology, Pandora was the first woman sent to the earth by God as a form of punishment. Jupiter gave her a box which she was to give to the man who married her. When the box was finally opened, all the evils that were in it flew out, and since then have caused trouble to mankind. So Pandora’s Box usually means a present or thing which may seem valuable, but brings trouble and misfortune.
As analyzed above, every allusion may have its origin and accepted meaning; usually the meaning of English words used in allusion could not be taken literally. For example, the old man of the sea does not mean the old man who lives on the
sea but a boring heavy burden or a nuisance. So in a word, in allusion, the contextual meaning of words refers to the enlightenments form the allusion. It seems clear that during comprehension, both figurative and literal information are available, but figurative language has the effect of making the abstract more concrete. Figurative language also provides the emotional and attitudes about the speaker. Although occasionally words used in figures of speech bring out misunderstanding to them, one can make close acquaintance with them and make good use of them through above analysis. Consequently, the analysis on contextual meaning of English words caused by figures of speech helps us not only understand what we read and heard, but also appreciate more fully the art of the English language.
Ⅱ.Contextual Meaning and Culture
As it is known to all, the culture refers to the total pattern of beliefs, customs, institutions, and techniques that characterize the life of a human community. So language cannot be separated from culture. Language reflects the culture of a nation on the one hand and is greatly influenced by that particular culture of a nation on the other hand. As a result, words, as the basic component of a language, are influenced and shaped by culture. It is just as a linguist Lado has said“ the meanings of words are usually culturally determined or modified. They represent an analysis of the universe as grasped in a culture.”(Ogden, 1923) It is interesting that different language might use different color terms to describe the same object or phenomenon. In fact, black tea is not black, but red in color. English words are often interpreted literally and misunderstood by English language learners for lacking of culture information. The title First Lady for the wife of the U.S president may cause misunderstanding when some people have an assumption that “there is a first lady, there must be a second lady, and may even a third, or even more, polygamy in the White House!” To get rid of analogous misunderstanding, it is necessary to take culture information into account to understand the meaning of English culture words accurately.
Comparatively speaking, idioms and culture of different nations are more difficult to English language learner.
A Idioms
Nida (1964) once pointed out culture has a great effect on the meaning of idioms; consequently, it is difficult to comprehend words with regardless of culture context. Idioms in broad sense may include set phrases, proverbs, saying, epigrams, slang expressions, colloquialisms, and quotation and so on. (Guo & Li, 2003)Idiom is an important part of the language and culture of society, they are often hard to understand, but people may get some enlightenment from the following story. There is a story: A foreign student in the U.S sitting by a window, reading a book, she heard someone yelling “Look out!” so she stuck her head out of the window, just then a board hurtled down from above, narrowly missing her, she looked up, half in anger, half in fright. There was a man on the roof doing repairs. “didn’t you hear me call ‘look out’?” he demanded. “Yes, and that’s what I did ” she replied. Whether it is true or not, the story illustrates the problem with idioms. They are almost impossible to understand from the meaning of the individual words, idioms can be taken as the combination of English words which take culture as background; it can be known that the meaning of an idiom must be seen as a whole. A simple definition of idiom would be the use of common word in a special sense. To spill the beans, for instance, is not at all connected with beans; it means to tell something that is secret. As for the meaning of words used in idioms, we should think of the context they offered or look up the dictionary to find the accepted meaning in order to grasp the precise contextual meaning.
B Culture of Different Nations
The different historical background, geographical positions, religious beliefs, customs life styles and value system, people speaking different languages have their own special interpretation of the same world. In each language, there are particular labels or names for objects, events, experience and feeling as the
speech community has arbitrarily decided to name them so. In English speaker’s mind, “magpie” is not so pleasant and people often associate it with person who chat a sot, but it is an auspicious bird in Chinese people’s mind, and is always associated with good luck and joyous occasions. Many Chinese people believe that “when the singing, the happy event is coming”, since culture of various nations has many differences, so it is worth paying attention to the meaning of English words which often show English countries’ culture, and English language learners should understand them by putting themselves into English-speaking countries’ shoes.
Likewise, there exists a great important difference in what intellectual mean between U.S cultures and Chinese culture. In China, the term intellectual means engineers, interpreters----people who have had a college education----a middle school teacher. In many Chinese rural areas, even middle school students are considered intellectual. In the U.S and Europe, however, intellectual would conclude only people of high academic satus such as college professors, but not ordinary college students. So the terms cover a such smaller range of people. As for the reason why those differences happened, it is unnecessary to mention. These two examples illustrate that one must be careful in assuming that bilingual dictionary definitions give exact equivalence in meaning or that deferent language always have word to express the same thing. To English language learners, one had better not only study the words, but also study the culture..
Conclusion
From the sociolinguistic point of view we know that vocabulary not only changes, but also changes quickly. Changes in lexicology and grammar are much slower, but the changes in vocabulary are much faster, when people meet with new objects and new ideas, they have the need of new words to express them. (Timothy, 2004)In the course of the development of language old words die out, new words are added , and existing words change their meaning. It is obvious that gradual change of meaning in words is a universal feature of human language.
The meaning of an English word may have many meanings; sometimes a word used in a context has its specific meaning. In order to grasp the exact meaning of their given word, one should take its context into account, such as figures of speech, culture. From what have been analyzed, we know that figures of speech have an important effect on word’s context meaning. Metonymy, as a very common, useful and effective language device, is an important factor in the shift of meaning that involves substitution of the name of one thing for that of another closely associate with it. The contextual meaning of English words often refers to the meaning which the original related to or suggested. At present, many writers, especially journalist and news reporters use it frequently. Metaphor is a way of describing something by saying it has the qualities of something else, and it also plays an important part in the contextual meaning of words. The foundation of metaphor is based on a strong resemblance between the two things described. In this case, one term expressing one thing may indicate another thing. So we should learn to grasp the hidden association between two unlike elements in a metaphor. Allusion is an art of speaking about something in an indirect way, so the contextual meaning of words refers to the enlightenment from the allusion. Although the above analysis of the effect of figures of speech on the context meaning of English words are not complete, the future work is able to discuss it more detailed as well as comprehensive.
Culture, from the above definition, we know that it contains much background information. So for the sake of the understanding of those words appeared in culture, we should grasp the background information of culture word firmly.
Seeing that the above analysis we can find that the context of English language provides us an important clue for understanding the exact meaning of words. Learning a language aims not only to make acquaint with them but also to make use of them. In our daily life, we use context meaning of English words all the time, apparently saying, it is just a common phenomenon in our life, but if we take this phenomenon out and analyze in detail, it is not difficult to discover that it is the very phenomenon that cause our misunderstanding of words as well as better understanding of contextual meaning of English words used in various areas. In conclusion, a systematical analysis on the contextual meaning of English words provides an important clue in guessing the contextual meaning of English words appearing in different areas and avoids some misunderstandings to the words used in different context. That is to say, the analysis contributes to English language learning and employing. So for English learner, to acquire the contextual meaning, we can guess the meaning from this clue in reading some English magazines, it will do good to our English learning.